Main problems of the Russian Orlan-M space suit utilization for EVAs on the ISS

In the recent years the Russian Orlan-M space suits have been improved as applied to their operational requirements for the ISS. A special attention is paid to enhancement of EVA crew efficiency and safety. The paper considers the main problems regarding specific features of the Russian space suit operation in the ISS, and analyses measures on their solution. In particular, the problems associated with the following are considered: enhancement of the anthropometric range for the EVA crewmembers; use of some US EMU elements and unified NASA equipment elements; Orlan-M operation support in the wide range of the ISS thermal conditions; use of Simplified Aid For Extravehicular activity Rescue (SAFER) designed as a self-rescue device, which will be used for an EVA crewmember return in the event that he (she) breaks away inadvertently from the ISS surface. The paper states the main space suit differences with reference to solution of the above problems. The paper presents briefly the design of space suit arms developed for crewmembers with small anthropometric parameters, as well as peculiarities and test results for the gloves with enhanced thermal protection. Measures on further space suit development with the purpose to improve its performances are considered.     

Space medicine comes down to Earth

Over the years innovative technologies developed for space flight have found their way into a variety of useful terrestrial applications. Significant examples can be found in the area of space medicine, which has greatly influenced human health care delivery on Earth. This report discusses several US applications of space medicine to terrestrial health needs and services, stressing the importance of a ‘space applications mentality’ as a valuable national asset.     

First results from experiments performed with the ESA Anthrorack during the D-2 Spacelab mission

In 1993 four astronauts performed physiological experiments on the payload "Anthrorack" during the second German Spacelab mission D-2. The Anthrorack set-up is a Spacelab double rack developed under the management of the European Space Agency. It consists of an ECHO machine, a respiratory monitoring system (gas analyzer with flow meter), a blood centrifuge, an ergometer, a finger blood pressure device, ECG, body impedance measurement device and a respiratory inductance plethysmograph. Experiment-specific equipment was used as well. Nineteen investigators performed experiments in the cardiovascular, pulmonary, fluid-renal and nutritional physiology area. Results on central venous pressure, ocular pressure, vascular resistance, cardiac output, tissue thickness and orthostatic intolerance are presented in the cardiovascular area. In the pulmonary area first results are mentioned on O2 transport perfusion and ventilation distribution and breathing pattern. From the fluid-renal experiments, data from diuresis, sodium excretion and hormonal determinations are given. Finally results from glucose metabolism and nitrogen turnover experiments are presented.     

Method based on artificial excitation of characteristic radiation by an electron beam for remote X-ray spectral elemental analysis of surface rocks on atmosphereless celestial bodies

This article, like our previous one [1], is devoted to advanced space technology concepts. It evaluates the potential for developing active systems to conduct a remote elemental analysis of surface rocks on an atmosphereless celestial body. The analysis is based on the spectrometry of characteristic X-rays (CXR) artificially excited in the surface soil layer. It has been proposed to use an electron beam injected from aboard a spacecraft orbiting the celestial body (or moving in a flyby trajectory) to excite the CXR elements contained in surface rocks. The focus is on specifying technical requirements to the parameters of payloads for a global mapping of the composition of lunar rocks from aboard of a low-orbiting lunar satellite. This article uses the results obtained in [2], our first study that shows the potential to develop an active system for a remote elemental analysis of lunar surface rocks using the above method. Although there has been interest in our research on the part of leading national academic institutions and space technology developers in the Soviet Union, the studies were discontinued because of the termination of the Soviet lunar program and the completion of the American Apollo program.     

The National Space Biomedical Research Institute's education and public outreach program: Working toward a global 21st century space exploration society

Space Exploration educators worldwide are confronting challenges and embracing opportunities to prepare students for the global 21st century workforce. The National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI), established in 1997 through a NASA competition, is a 12-university consortium dedicated to space life science research and education. NSBRI's Education and Public Outreach Program (EPOP) is advancing the Institute's mission by responding to global educational challenges through activities that: provide teacher professional development; develop curricula that teach students to communicate with their peers across the globe; provide women and minority US populations with greater access to, and awareness of science careers; and promote international science education partnerships.A recent National Research Council (NRC) Space Studies Board Report, America's Future in Space: Aligning the Civil Program with National Needs, acknowledges that “a capable workforce for the 21st century is a key strategic objective for the US space program… (and that) US problems requiring best efforts to understand and resolve…are global in nature and must be addressed through mutual worldwide action”. [1] This sentiment has gained new momentum through a recent National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) report, which recommends that the life of the International Space Station be extended beyond the planned 2016 termination. [2] The two principles of globalization and ISS utility have elevated NSBRI EPOP efforts to design and disseminate science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) educational materials that prepare students for full participation in a globalized, high technology society; promote and provide teacher professional development; create research opportunities for women and underserved populations; and build international educational partnerships.This paper describes select EPOP projects and makes the case for using innovative, emerging information technologies to transfer space exploration knowledge to students, engage educators from across the globe in discourse about science curricula, and foster multimedia collaborations that inform citizens about the benefits of space exploration for life on Earth. Special references are made to educational activities conducted at professional meetings in Austria, Canada, France, China, Greece, Italy, Russia, Scotland and Spain.     

Arms control and disarmament in space: the rough road to Vienna 1984: Part I

This article examines the international legal and diplomatic questions relating to arms control and disarmament, focusing on space-based activities. These relate importantly to the development of anti-satellite satellites (ASATs) and ballistic missile defence systems (BMDs). Part I of the article examines the goal of ‘peaceful uses’ of outer space as elaborated in national policies and in international fora, the debate that has has taken place at the international level over the meaning and definition of peaceful purposes, legal manoeuvres, particularly in the UN, and US responses, and recent Soviet initiatives relating to space militarization. Part II will appear in the next issue, and will consider the US Presidential-Congressional dialogue on these questions and recent Presidential initiatives.     

美国作战及时响应空间计划及其技术发展预测

美国的作战及时响应空间（ORS）计划是为战术应用而建立的,目的是发展低成本、灵活性的快速响应能力,也就是说,把各军种的战术卫星和近空间系统（及时响应有效载荷）与航天发射系统及航天发射场四个系统作为一个ORS整体或一个综合系统。美国目前正在逐步完善其ORS系统,并全面推进。简要讲述了ORS的作战原理及特点,分析了当前的ORS的几个计划,提出了2025年ORS计划的技术预测。     

Debating the future of US space policy

A briefing on the subject of US space policy was held in Washington in July 2009 by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Based around some of its recent publications, while emphasizing the US situation and direction, the briefing did not ignore the context of international space activity. In particular it considered China's spacefaring development and suggested ways of engaging more fruitfully with that country. This report presents a summary of the issues raised and recommendations made.     

On the contribution of space medicine in the public health care

With the beginning of space era, a new branch of medicine has arisen and has been developing along with human exploration of outer space. And even though space medicine mainly faces the same problems as traditional medicine--cosmonauts health care and their high efficiency--this branch, has its own features, associated with the unusual factors of space flight, of which weightlessness is the major one. During the development of manned cosmonautics (duration of a human stay in space has reached already 438 days), methods of cosmonauts medical support and monitoring of their condition have been developed, knowledge of human possibilities and methods of process of organism adaptation to various and frequently severe conditions of external environment have increased. All this led to the fact that nowadays space medicine can become useful for improvement of human health care not only in space but also on the Earth. Moreover, the problem of implementation of cosmonautics achievements, and in particular of space medicine, in practice of public health care presents one of the most important issues concerning human health care. It is also connected with public opinion which is more and more concerned about the efficiency of significant expenses on space activities, especially lately. People often are set by the questions: what has space given, what fruits has space research provided to mankind, which results of this research can be used on the Earth already today for improvement of their life, for discussion of many difficult earthly problems? In terms of using cosmonautics possibilities, its achievements for health care and treatment, it is possible to define a few branches, in which purposeful studies are carried out.     

Hematological and immunological changes during space flight.

This paper gives a summary of the principal hematological and immunological changes observed in crews after space flight. Reduction of red blood cell mass (2-21%) and of hemoglobin mass (12-33%) is generally observed after the US and Soviet space missions. The changes are accompanied with a loss of plasma volume (4-16%). Erythrocyte and hemoglobin concentrations in the blood remain constant, suggesting that the changes are driven by a feed-back mechanism. Immunological changes consist mainly of reduced T-lymphocyte reactivity. The results of the 96-day and 140-day Salyut-6 missions suggest that the adaptation of the immune system to spaceflight occurs in two stages: the first takes place during the first 2-3 months in space, the second follows and consists of further weakening of the immune response. Our experiments with human lymphocytes in vitro indicate that high-g enhance, whereas low-g depress lymphocyte activity. Finally, our investigations to be performed on Spacelab are described.     

President Obama’s National Space Policy: A change in tone and a focus on space sustainability

The major features of President Obama’s new US space policy are discussed and particular aspects are compared with those of the previous Bush policy. In many cases there are similarities of substance but the tone of the latest policy is more outward looking and inclusive, with a far greater emphasis on cooperation, both internationally and with the private sector. And while some complain that the policy does not sufficiently emphasize US leadership, a statement by President Obama on the day of its release makes clear that this remains a paramount goal. Serious questions remain, however, about implementation of the new policy, particularly where it requires substantial government funding such as human spaceflight and the restructured weather/environmental satellite programs.     

A crisis in the NASA space and Earth sciences programme : NASA Space and Earth Sciences Committee

The US space and Earth science programme is in a time of crisis. As the research environment changes and new scientific opportunities emerge, a broader range of resources is needed, including substantial new flight opportunities. There are a growing number of claimants for space research resources. Fluctuations in funding, programme delays and mismatched time scales have contributed to wasted time and research efforts. A new commitment is needed in this crisis; this article contains a summary of the analysis and recommendations of a recent report of NASA advisory committee.     

Third-party liability insurance and space launches

This article discusses a number of issues related to the US commercial expendable launch vehicle (ELV) industry and government's role in ensuring its competitiveness, particularly third-party liability insurance for space launches. The author finds that the space insurance industry has become a major constraint on the commercial development of space. The future implications are considered of US government involvement with the launch services industry, initially through providing third-party insurance itself. The author concludes that, for a stable commercial ELV industry, it will be necessary for the USA either to establish fair-trade agreements with other space-capable nations, or to maintain a significant government involvement to support the industry.     

美国空间监视系统最新发展及趋势分析

近几年,美军为增强空间态势感知能力,大力发展空间监视系统,发展重点包括两个方面：一是对原有空间监视网进行改进,二是研制和部署新的天基和地基空间监视系统。文章介绍了美国空间监视系统最新发展计划,总结了各计划的进展情况,研究了未来新系统的能力,并分析了美国空间监视系统总体发展趋势。     

Competitiveness of the European space industry. Lessons from Europe's role in NATO

This article aims to illustrate how the predominant role of the US military space capabilities within NATO adversely affects the European space industry's competitiveness and performance, as compared with the USA space industry. Thus, first the intra-NATO specialization is illustrated, followed by an analysis of the economics of the space industry. The connection is made through an economics model whose results verify the hypothesis, and predicts that the recent commitment by the WEU to military space can improve the position of the European space industry, especially if followed by close cooperation between the WEU and ESA.     

Current US remote sensing policies: opportunities and challenges

This article examines recent progress in US land remote sensing policies by reviewing the evolution of policy on commercial imaging satellites from 1992 to the present and charting developments in the Landsat programme. Key features of the new (2003) commercial remote sensing policy are described, which go far in addressing the ambiguities of the earlier (PDD-23) framework that, in practice, hampered development of a commercial industry. In the case of Landsat, problems, particularly those of assured data provision, remain. The key to solving them lies in integrating civil, military and commercial elements more coherently, rather than considering them in isolation.     

China's rise in space and US policy responses: A collision course?

China's opaque politics present particular difficulties for US space policy. Heavily invested in and reliant on space, the US will closely monitor China's burgeoning space program. New space powers, and the increasing use of space generally will further create significant challenges, most particularly to the reliance of states on space for national security. In order to maintain its space capabilities, the US will have to decide between securing this via multilateral and co-operative uses of space, or through trying to maintain a level of dominance over other space actors. While very gradually shifting away from the latter position, Washington's policy choices are complicated by the lack of a clear Chinese space strategy. While the Chinese space program, and its wider intentions, are opaque, tenure of a more cooperative approach course might prove fragile.     

What is wrong with space system cost models? A survey and assessment of cost estimating approaches

Despite several decades of research and refinement in cost estimating tools and practices, the final cost of US space programs continues to exceed initial cost estimates by an average of more than 45%. Thus, program cost models not only exhibit error, they are seriously biased. A structured review surveyed techniques, approaches, models and conceptual tools related to space program cost estimating, to understand cost in complex space systems. Analysis shows problems of cost estimating result from the growing complexity of space programs, failures in managing growth, and mission failures. Although there is greater expectation for the models to accurately predict program costs, the current models used for seeking funding for large space programs are inadequate due to (1) inability to predict future, (2) lack of insight, and (3) process replaces judgment in decision making.     

The risks and impacts of space weather: Policy recommendations and initiatives

Space weather affects global technological systems and societies. Space weather, or the dynamic conditions on the Sun and in the space environment and their impacts on technological systems, can produce coronal mass ejections, solar energetic particles, and geomagnetic disturbances. These space weather events can cause extreme currents in the electric grid, widespread blackouts, and phone and internet communication failures both in space and within the Earth's atmosphere. Severe space weather can damage satellites used for global positioning, communications, and weather forecasting. It also creates a risk of radiation exposure to astronauts and commercial airline crews and passengers. Accurate forecast knowledge of the space weather threat and timing of events is critical to planning and preparation to minimize socioeconomic impacts. This paper reviews the scope of the space weather threat on the global community today. It describes current international and US public policy initiatives to mitigate risk to infrastructure, public safety, and human life. It examines recent international reports and US federal disaster reduction plans to meet these challenges and provides recommendations to increase public awareness and implement public policies to prepare, prevent, and recover from possible catastrophic failures of commercial and government infrastructures caused by a major space weather event.     

美俄空间目标监视现状与发展研究

空间对抗能力的主要标志是空间监视和预警能力、空间部署能力和空间攻防能力.探讨了空间目标面临的主要问题,介绍了美俄两国空间侦察监视技术的发展现状,指出美国正在大力扩展其空间目标监视能力.空间目标监视将在空间对抗中起着越来越关键的作用.