Interstellar planetary protection

In the coming decades the detection of Earth-like extrasolar planets, either apparently lifeless or exhibiting spectral signatures of life, will encourage design studies for craft to visit them. These missions will require the elaboration of an interstellar planetary protection protocol. Given a specific dose required to sterilize microorganisms on a spacecraft, a critical mean velocity can be determined below which a craft becomes self-sterilizing. This velocity is calculated to be below velocities previously projected for interstellar missions, suggesting that an active sterilization protocol prior to launch might be required. Given uncertainties in the surface conditions of a destination extrasolar planet, particularly at microscopic scales, the potential for unknown biochemistries and biologies elsewhere, or the possible inoculation of a lifeless planet that is habitable, then both lander and orbiter interstellar missions should be completely free of all viable organisms, necessitating a planetary protection approach applied to orbiters and landers bound for star systems with unknown local conditions for habitability. I discuss the case of existing craft on interstellar trajectories – Pioneer 10, 11 and Voyager 1 and 2.     

The problems of simulation of planetary systems accumulation processes

Evolution of a system consisting of a great number of bodies that are gravitationally interacting and aggregating in contacts is considered. Body motions take place in the gravitational field of a central massive body (Sun or planet) in the same plane and at the initial time of system evolution orbits of all bodies are circular. It is shown that during evolution of the protoplanetary cloud, ring zones of matter rarefaction and condensation develop. Development of the condensation zones leads to the formation of planets, the most part of which acquire a direct rotation about their axes. In the case under consideration, approximate agreement between the law of planetary distances and that of geometric progression takes place as it is observed in planetary and satellite systems. The formation of the terrestrial planets and Jovian planets has been simulated. The principal numerical results have been obtained through digital simulation of planetary accumulation.     

Organic syntheses in gas phase and chemical evolution in planetary atmospheres

Atmospheric chemistry may be one of the important pathways to the synthesis of organic compounds in a planetary periphery. Depending on the nature of the carbon source (CH₄, CO or CO₂), the main composition of the atmosphere, and the respective roles of the various energy sources, is it possible, and to what extent, to produce organics? What kind of gaseous mixture is the most favourable to prebiotic organic syntheses? How far can the results of laboratory works be extrapolated to the case of planetary atmospheres? These questions are discussed, on the basis of several available laboratory data, and by considering the main atmospheric composition of the planets of the solar system, and the list of organic compounds which have already been dettected in their atmospheres.     

The search for extra-solar planetary systems.

I review the observational evidence for planetary systems around nearby stars and, using our own solar system as a guide, assess the stringent requirements that new searches need to meet in order to unambiguously establish the presence of another planetary system. Basically, these requirements are: 1 milliarcsecond or better positional accuracy for astrometric techniques, 9 orders of magnitude or better star to planet luminosity ratio discrimination at 0.5 to 1" separation in the optical for direct imaging techniques, 10 meters sec-1 or better radial velocity accuracy for reflex motion techniques and +/-1% or better brightness fluctuation accuracy for planet/star occultation measurements. The astrometric accuracy is in reach of HST, direct imaging will require much larger telescopes and/or a 50 times smoother mirror than HST while the reflex motion and occultation techniques best performed on the ground are just becoming viable and promise exciting new discoveries. On the other band, new indirect evidence on the existence of other planetary systems also comes from the observation of large dusty disks around nearby main sequence stars not too dissimilar from our sun. In one particular case, that of Beta Pictoris, a flattened disk seen nearly edge-on has been imaged in the optical and near IR down to almost 70 AU of the star. It probably represents a young planetary system in its clearing out phase as planetesimals collide, erode and are swept out of the inner system by radiation pressure. The hypothesized Kuiper belt around our solar system may be the analogous structure in a later evolutionary stage. Features of this type have been detected in the far IR and sub-millimeter wavelength regions around 50-100 nearby main sequence and pre-main sequence stars. I discuss a battery of new accurate observations planned in the near future of these objects some of which may actually harbour planets or planetesimals that will certainly dramatically improve our knowledge of planetary system formation processes and our peculiar position in this scheme.     

Indications and counterindications for applying different versions of closed ecosystems for space and terrestrial problems of life support.

Different versions of manned closed ecosystems (CES) based on photosynthesis of unicellular and/or higher plants and chemosynthesis or bacteria are considered. Different versions of CES have been compared for applying them on Earth, Moon, Mars and Venus orbital stations, for Mars missions and planetary stations as well as to provide high-quality life in extreme conditions on the Earth. In microgravity [correction of mycrogravity] we recommend CES with unicellular organisms based on photosynthesis or chemosynthesis (depending of the availability of the light or electric energy). For the planetary stations with Moon gravity and higher CES with higher plants are recommended. Improvement of indoor air quality by CES biotechnology is considered.     

Study of the Moon and comparative planetology: Problems and perspectives

On the base of the comparative planetologic study of the Moon and terrestrial planets two fundamental features of their history and structure have been established.Firstly, shell-like structure of the terrestrial planets could be understood only in the terms of the heterogeneous accretion theory. At the final stages of major terrestrial planet formation the leading role belonged to the planetosimals of carbonaceous chondritic composition. Secondly, there are two types of the crust on the planetary surface. Their formation are considered to be independent and differing in the geological time. The primary planetary crust of predominantly feldspathic composition is considered to form during the pregeologic period at the final stage of planetary formation due to the impact-explosive processes. The hydrosphere and atmosphere is thought to appear contemporaneously. The basaltic planetary crust is forming later due to the radioactive decay and superimposed on the primary feldspathic crust.     

Planetary protection program for Mars 94/96 mission.

Mars surface in-situ exploration started in 1975 with the American VIKING mission. Two probes landed on the northern hemisphere and provided, for the first time, detailed information on the martian terrain, atmosphere and meteorology. The current goal is to undertake larger surface investigations and many projects are being planned by the major Space Agencies with this objective. Among these projects, the Mars 94/96 mission will make a major contributor toward generating significant information about the martian surface on a large scale. Since the beginning of the Solar System exploration, planets where life could exist have been subject to planetary protection requirements. Those requirements accord with the COSPAR Policy and have two main goals: the protection of the planetary environment from influence or contamination by terrestrial microorganisms, the protection of life science, and particularly of life detection experiments searching extra-terrestrial life, and not life carried by probes and spacecrafts. As the conditions for life and survival for terrestrial microorganisms in the Mars environment became known, COSPAR recommendations were updated. This paper will describe the decontamination requirements which will be applied for the MARS 94/96 mission, the techniques and the procedures which are and will be used to realize and control the decontamination of probes and spacecrafts.     

From the interstellar clouds, through the inner to the outer solar system: a universally distributed complex organic chemistry. Preface.

High molecular weight organic compounds are involved in the chemistry and physics of many astrophysical and planetary objects. They are or should be present in interstellar dust, in comets and meteorites, in the Giant planets and Titan, in asteroids Triton and icy satellites. They represent a class of very complex organic material, part of which may have played a role in the origin of life on Earth. Thus they directly concern prebiotic chemistry and exobiology.     

Effects of air velocity on photosynthesis of plant canopies under elevated CO2 levels in a plant culture system.

To obtain basic data for adequate air circulation for promoting plant growth in closed plant production modules in bioregenerative life support systems in space, effects of air velocities ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 m s-1 on photosynthesis in tomato seedlings canopies were investigated under atmospheric CO2 concentrations of 0.4 and 0.8 mmol mol-1. The canopy of tomato seedlings on a plug tray (0.4 x 0.4 m2) was set in a wind-tunnel-type chamber (0.6 x 0.4 x 0.3 m3) installed in a semi-closed-type assimilation chamber (0.9 x 0.5 x 0.4 m3). The net photosynthetic rate in the plant canopy was determined with the differences in CO2 concentrations between the inlet and outlet of the assimilation chamber multiplied by the volumetric air exchange rate of the chamber. Photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) on the plant canopy was kept at 0.25 mmol m-2 s-1, air temperature at 23 degrees C and relative humidity at 55%. The leaf area indices (LAIs) of the plant canopies were 0.6-2.5 and plant heights were 0.05-0.2 m. The net photosynthetic rate of the plant canopy increased with increasing air velocities inside plant canopies and saturated at 0.2 m s-1. The net photosynthetic rate at the air velocity of 0.4 m s-1 was 1.3 times that at 0.1 m s-1 under CO2 concentrations of 0.4 and 0.8 mmol mol-1. The net photosynthetic rate under CO2 concentrations of 0.8 mmol mol-1 was 1.2 times that under 0.4 mmol mol-1 at the air velocity ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 m s-1. The results confirmed the importance of controlling air movement for enhancing the canopy photosynthesis under an elevated CO2 level as well as under a normal CO2 level in the closed plant production modules.     

Synergies of Earth science and space exploration

A more flexible policy basis from which to manage our planet in the 21st century is desirable. As one contribution, we note that synergies between space exploration and the preservation of our habitat exist, and that protecting life on Earth requires similar concepts and information as investigations of life beyond the Earth, including the expansion of human presence in space. Instrumentation and data handling to observe both planetary objects and planet Earth are based on similar techniques. Moreover, while planetary surface operations are conducted under different conditions, the technology to probe the surface and subsurface of both the Earth and other planets requires similar tools, such as radar, seismometers, and drilling devices. The Earth observation community has developed some exemplary tools and has featured successful international cooperation in data handling and sharing that could be equally well applied to robotic planetary exploration. Here we propose a network involving both communities that will enable the interchange of scientific insights and the development of new policies and management strategies. Those tools can provide a vital forum through which the management of this planet can be assisted, and in which a new bridge between the Earth-centric and space-centric communities can be built.     

系外行星大气与宜居系外行星研究进展及发展趋势

探测系外行星的主要目的是研究生命和可供地球生命生存的行星是否普遍存在这一基本科学问题.近20年来已有超过3000颗系外行星被发现,还有几千颗候选系外行星有待确认,其中疑似宜居系外行星的数量近20颗.未来十年疑似宜居系外行星的数目将大为增加.尽管目前对宜居系外行星大气观测的能力和科学结果还很有限,但可以预期未来20年对这一类行星大气的观测将成为行星科学研究的重要领域.本文根据当前系外行星大气科学发展的状态和主要科学问题,在对中国未来系外行星科学发展方向进行分析的基础上,提出一种比较可行的建议,即在近1~2年内有针对性地开展系外行星大气普查和系外行星高层大气观测的可行性论证和预研,并在5~10年内择一予以实施.      

Modification of planetary atmospheres by material from the rings

The atmospheres and ionospheres of ringed planets can be, and perhaps are, modified by the injection of gaseous neutral and ionized species, and dust of ring origin. Although no direct evidence for such interaction exists, many of the unresolved characteristics of planetary composition, thermal structure and ionosphere would be understood if the rings supplied certain materials to their parent planets.     

Carbon balance in bioregenerative life support systems: some effects of system closure, waste management, and crop harvest index.

In Advanced Life Support (ALS) systems with bioregenerative components, plant photosynthesis would be used to produce O2 and food, while removing CO2. Much of the plant biomass would be inedible and hence must be considered in waste management. This waste could be oxidized (e.g., incinerated or aerobically digested) to resupply CO2 to the plants, but this would not be needed unless the system were highly closed with regard to food. For example, in a partially closed system where some of the food is grown and some is imported, CO2 from oxidized waste when combined with crew and microbial respiration could exceed the CO2 removal capability of the plants. Moreover, it would consume some O2 produced from photosynthesis that could have been used by the crew. For partially closed systems it would be more appropriate to store or find other uses for the inedible biomass and excess carbon, such as generating soils or growing woody plants (e.g., dwarf fruit trees). Regardless of system closure, high harvest crops (i.e., crops with a high edible to total biomass ratio) would increase food production per unit area and O2 yields for systems where waste biomass is oxidized to recycle CO2. Such interlinking effects between the plants and waste treatment strategies point out the importance of oxidizing only that amount of waste needed to optimize system performance.     

Characterization of complex organic compounds formed in simulated planetary atmospheres by the action of high energy particles.

A wide variety of organic compounds, which are not simple organics but also complex organics, have been found in planets and comets. We reported that complex organics was formed in simulated planetary atmospheres by the action of high energy particles. Here we characterized the experimental products by using chromatographic and mass spectrometric techniques. A gaseous mixture of CO, N2 and H2O was irradiated with high energy protons (major components of cosmic rays). Water-soluble non-volatile substances, which gave amino acids after acid-hydrolysis, were characterized by HPLC and mass spectrometry. Major part of the products were complex compounds with molecular weight of several hundreds. Amino acid precursors were produced even when no water was incorporated with the starting materials. It was suggested that complex molecules including amino acid precursors were formed not in solution from simple molecules like HCN, but directly in gaseous phase.     

Plant responses to short- and long-term exposures to high carbon dioxide levels in closed environments.

When higher plants are exposed to elevated levels of CO2 for both short- and long-term periods photosynthetic C-gain and photoassimilate export from leaves are generally increased. Water use efficiency is increased on a leaf area basis. During long-term exposures, photosynthesis rates on leaf and whole plants bases are altered in a species specific manner. The most common pattern in C3 plants is an enhanced rate of whole plant photosynthesis in a well irradiated canopy. Nevertheless, in some herbaceous species prolonged exposure to high CO2 results in remobilization of nitrogenous reserves (i.e., leaf protein degradation) and reduced rates of mature leaf photosynthesis when assayed at ambient CO2 and O2 levels. Both short- and long-term exposures to those CO2 levels (i.e., 100 to 2,000 microliter l-1) which modify photosynthesis and export, also modify both endogenous ethylene gas (C2H4) release, and substrate, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), saturated C2H4 release rates from irradiated leaves. Photosynthetically active canopy leaves contribute most of the C2H4 released from the canopy. Prolonged growth at high CO2 results in a persistent increase in the rate of endogenous C2H4 release from leaves which can, only in part, be attributed to the increase of the endogenous pools of C2H4 pathway intermediates (e.g., methionine, M-ACC, and ACC). The capacity for increasing the rate of C2H4 release in response to short-term exposures to varying CO2 levels does not decline after prolonged growth at high CO2. When leaves, whole plants, and model canopies of tomato plants are exposed to exogenous C2H4 a reduction in the rate of photosynthesis can, in each case, be attributed to the classical effects of C2H4 on plant development and morphology. The effect of C2H4 on CO2 gas exchange of plant canopies is shown to be dependent on the canopy leaf area index.     

Farming in space: environmental and biophysical concerns.

The colonization of space will depend on our ability to routinely provide for the metabolic needs (oxygen, water, and food) of a crew with minimal re-supply from Earth. On Earth, these functions are facilitated by the cultivation of plant crops, thus it is important to develop plant-based food production systems to sustain the presence of mankind in space. Farming practices on earth have evolved for thousands of years to meet both the demands of an ever-increasing population and the availability of scarce resources, and now these practices must adapt to accommodate the effects of global warming. Similar challenges are expected when earth-based agricultural practices are adapted for space-based agriculture. A key variable in space is gravity; planets (e.g. Mars, 1/3 g) and moons (e.g. Earth's moon, 1/6 g) differ from spacecraft orbiting the Earth (e.g. Space stations) or orbital transfer vehicles that are subject to microgravity. The movement of heat, water vapor, CO2 and O2 between plant surfaces and their environment is also affected by gravity. In microgravity, these processes may also be affected by reduced mass transport and thicker boundary layers around plant organs caused by the absence of buoyancy dependent convective transport. Future space farmers will have to adapt their practices to accommodate microgravity, high and low extremes in ambient temperatures, reduced atmospheric pressures, atmospheres containing high volatile organic carbon contents, and elevated to super-elevated CO2 concentrations. Farming in space must also be carried out within power-, volume-, and mass-limited life support systems and must share resources with manned crews. Improved lighting and sensor technologies will have to be developed and tested for use in space. These developments should also help make crop production in terrestrial controlled environments (plant growth chambers and greenhouses) more efficient and, therefore, make these alternative agricultural systems more economically feasible food production systems.     

Comparison of methods for the determination of key reactions in chemical systems: Application to Titan’s atmosphere

A new paradigm is emerging in the field of photochemistry modeling in giant planets and Titan atmospheres. The emphasis is placed on the accurate predictions of the models and the quantification of their uncertainties. In order to improve photochemical models predictions, it is necessary to identify in chemical schemes the key reactions that should be studied in priority at conditions relevant to planetary atmospheres.     

Revised planetary protection policy for solar system exploration

In order to control contamination of planets by terrestrial microorganisms and organic constituents, U.S. planetary missions have been governed by a planetary protection (or planetary quarantine) policy which has changed little since 1972. This policy has recently been reviewed in light of new information obtained from planetary exploration during the past decade and because of changes to, or uncertainties in, some parameters used in the existing quantitative approach. On the basis of this analysis, a revised planetary protection policy with the following key features is proposed: deemphasizing the use of mathematical models and quantitative analyses; establishing requirements for target planet/mission type (i.e., orbiter, lander, etc.) combinations; considering sample return missions a separate category; simplifying documentation; and imposing implementing procedures (i.e., trajectory biasing, cleanroom assembly, spacecraft sterilization, etc.) by exception, i.e., only if the planet/mission combination warrants such controls.     

Space Telescope observations of aurorae on the giant planets

For the distant giant planets, Uranus and Neptune, the observation of aurorae may be the best astronomical technique for the detection of planetary magnetic fields, with implications for the structure and composition of their interiors. Aurorae may be detected by emssion of H I Ly α (1216 Å) and by H₂ bands near 1600 Å. The latter are important for very faint aurorae because there is essentially no planetary, interplanetary or geocoronal scattering of sunlight to contaminate the signal. For Uranus, present IUE results suggest the presence of a strong aurora at Ly α, but the background and instrument noise levels are very high compared to the apparent signal. At 1600 Å, the IUE instrument noise renders the H₂ emission bands on Uranus marginal at best. No aurora has yet been observed on Neptune. For Jupiter, where the existence and general characteristics of the magnetic field are well established, there is disagreement between ground-based infrared and space-borne ultraviolet observations of the location of the aurorae. For all four giant planets, Space Telescope can improve upon the quality of current optical observations. For spectroscopy, the low resolution mode of the High Resolution Spectrograph (HRS) is particularly well suited to auroral observations because of its spectral range, adequate resolution and high sensitivity. For ultraviolet imaging through appropriate filters, the ST spatial resolution, expected to be of order 5 hundredths of an arc second, is also well suited to determine the spatial properties of the aurorae.