The economics of large orbital communications systems

This paper examines the economics of a very large satellite in geostationary orbit. Present day charges for satellite transponders are used to show that the seemingly high cost of this type of platform is rapidly repaid. Several orbit locations are selected on the basis of current usages and a satellite is configured with the power and mass requirements identified. Costs for the total space segment of a large platform are extrapolated using established cost histories of both satellites and launch vehicles. It is shown that the original investment is repaid in less than three years. After this time, the platform continues to earn revenue.     

A compact, light-weight high data-rate antenna system for remote-sensing orbiters and space exploration

Upcoming space missions utilizing hyperspectral or other high-resolution sensors will generate a vast amount of data in orbit. The average communication duration between a spacecraft in low Earth orbit (LEO) to a dedicated ground station is short and in addition, due to the high amount of data to be transferred at link times, a high-performance communication system on board of the satellite is indispensable.A solution that provides longer acquisition times with the ground station is to employ a high data-rate inter-satellite link to a geostationary relay satellite, which requires a flat, compact, steerable, light-weight yet robust antenna. Such an antenna system (antenna module plus pointing module) was developed for S-Band at the Institute of Astronautics (Technische Universität München), in cooperation with German space companies, research institutes and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Its successful operation via the geostationary relay satellite Artemis was demonstrated in cooperation with ESA in 2007.This paper describes the evaluation of an antenna system in the Ka-Band, as a successor to be developed in the next two years for high data rates and the various applications of such an antenna system.     

“Furoshiki satellite” - a large membrane structure as a novel space system

We have been studying a large membrane space structure named “Furoshiki Satellite,” as a promising candidate of a future space system for those missions requiring large area in space such as solar power generation, a large communication antenna, or a large radiator. This membrane is folded in a very small volume during launch and is deployed and controlled by a set of several satellites at its corners or using centrifugal force generated by rotating the central satellite. It is expected that such a structure will reduce the weight per area of the space structure and, if the control technology is properly applied, it can be efficiently folded during launch and easily deployed after release. This paper shows the concept of Furoshiki Satellite, its applications, and its dynamics on orbit and how to control it. A nano-satellite project on demonstrate the concept of Furoshiki Satellite will also be described briefly.     

The development of a Russian communication satellite of small class, operating in the geostationary and high-elliptical orbits

In 1994-1995 Lavochkin Association (Russia) together with the other enterprises in accordance with technical requirements of the Russian Space agency, developed a new Russian communication satellite of a small class that will operate in both the geostationary (GSO) and high-elliptical (HEO) orbits. This satellite may be injected into operational orbits using a SOYUZ-2 launch vehicle (LV) and a FREGAT upper stage (US) from Plesetsk and Baykonur space launch sites (SLS).The main reason for creating such a satellite was to decrease the cost of the support and development of the Russian communication geostationary satellites group.Russian satellites Horizont, Express, Ekran and Gals, which operate in GSO, are the basis of the space segment for communications, radio and TV broadcasting. All of these satellites are injected into GSO by the PROTON LV. PROTON is a launch vehicle of a heavy class. The use of a middle class LV instead of a heavy class will allow to reduce considerably the launch cost. The change of a heavy class LV to a LV of middle class determined one economic reason for this project. Besides, the opportunity to launch S/C into GSO from Russian Plesetsk SLS increases the independence of Russia in the domain of space communications, despite the presence of the contract with Kazachstan about the rent of Baykonur SLS. Finally, use of small satellites with a rather small number of transponders is more effective than the use of big satellites. It will allow also to increase a satellite group (by the launch of additional satellites) precisely in accordance to the development of the ground segment.     

The development of a Russian communication satellite of small class, operating in the geostationary and high-elliptical orbits

In 1994–1995 Lavochkin Association (Russia) together with the other enterprises in accordance with technical requirements of the Russian Space agency, developed a new Russian communication satellite of a small class that will operate in both the geostationary (GSO) and high-elliptical (HEO) orbits. This satellite may be injected into operational orbits using a SOYUZ-2 launch vehicle (LV) and a FREGAT upper stage (US) from Plesetsk and Baykonur space launch sites (SLS).The main reason for creating such a satellite was to decrease the cost of the support and development of the Russian communication geostationary satellites group.Russian satellites Horizont, Express, Ekran and Gals, which operate in GSO, are the basis of the space segment for communications, radio and TV broadcasting. All of these satellites are injected into GSO by the PROTON LV. PROTON is a launch vehicle of a heavy class. The use of a middle class LV instead of a heavy class will allow to reduce considerably the launch cost. The change of a heavy class LV to a LV of middle class determined one economic reason for this project. Besides, the opportunity to launch S/C into GSO from Russian Plesetsk SLS increases the independence of Russia in the domain of space communications, despite the presence of the contract with Kazachstan about the rent of Baykonur SLS. Finally, use of small satellites with a rather small number of transponders is more effective than the use of big satellites. It will allow also to increase a satellite group (by the launch of additional satellites) precisely in accordance to the development of the ground segment.     

Cost reduction trends in space communications by larger satellites/platforms

The paper analyses first the satellite growth trend in the past and the specific characteristics of communication satellites, as there are specific mass per channel and payload share vs. spacecraft mass.

With assistance of a cost model (derived from actual spacecraft cost) it is shown that larger satellites are more cost effective. The same applies to the launch cost, also showing a reduction in specific cost (per kg or per channel-year) for larger payloads.

Finally different types of communication satellites/platforms are compared (two smaller satellites, one large satellite, modular docked assemblies) for the same total communication capacity of 72 000 dual telephone channels. It is shown that for each orbital communication capacity a certain optimum spacecraft size exists which leads to minimum space segment cost.     

Economics of telecommunications space segments

This paper proposes a complete model for assessing the economics of telecommunications satellite systems, accounting for spacecraft development and manufacturing, launch and operations in orbit. This allows to account for such parameters as the mass and lifetime of the satellites, the number and type of payloads, the number of satellites procured and launched, the spare policy, the launch vehicle, the insurances, the satellite average MTTF and the management of the space segment efforts.

The model is divided into four parts: the spacecraft mass model, the spacecraft procurement cost model, the MTTF model and the space segment cost-effectiveness model. It provides for the rapid solution of a number of problems within a wide range of parameters such as assessing the influence on space segment economics of —certain satellite technologies, —satellite and payload mass, —number of payloads per spacecraft, —satellite lifetime, or —spare policy.     

对GEO卫星照相的HEO卫星变轨策略研究

为对地球同步轨道卫星近距离光学照相,设计了大椭圆任务轨道.在考虑地球扁率J2的动力学模型下,研究了大椭圆轨道变轨策略,提出了轨道设计方案,并进行了仿真计算.基于STK软件对变轨方案进行了仿真验证,结果表明所提出的轨道设计方案能够满足对地球同步轨道卫星近距离光学照相要求.     

Multi-cell satellite for the communications of year 2000

The multi-cell communication satellite concept allows an efficient use of the geostationary orbit and a large reduction of the bit transmission cost, as a Bell-type (phased array), multiple mobile narrow beams arrangement with SS-TDMA.It has a flat hexagonal flying-saucer shape, being erected in a low altitude orbit, through an automatic assembly process of a large number of quasi-identical hexagonal cells. Each cell has independent power supply, thrusters, RF modules etc….Total assembly requires 10 ARIANE V or 4 SHUTTLE launches. An automatic tooling assembly using simple iterative manoeuvers is used to obtain the final shape, from initial cylindrical packages.Transfer into geostationary orbit is provided by low-thrust bi-propellant units attached to the cells, and released after burn-out. Assembly and transfer duration is about 6 months.Total traffic to 1000–2000 towns being 100 Gbits/s, the expected reduction of bit-transmission cost relative to year 1981 is 75–100 fold.     

航天器非地球轨道热环境模拟技术探讨

月球、火星探测器等非地球轨道航天器与地球轨道航天器对热控的要求有很大的不同,为验证热控设计的合理性,必须在地面做好充分的热环境模拟试验.国内绝大部分空间环模设备都是以模拟地球轨道航天器在轨环境为目的建设的,显然不能满足深空探测需要.文章针对航天器非地球轨道深空热环境模拟技术进行探讨.     

A low-cost femtosatellite to enable distributed space missions

A new class of distributed space missions is emerging which requires hundreds to thousands of satellites for real-time, distributed, multi-point sensing to accomplish long-awaited remote sensing and science objectives. These missions, stymied by the lack of a low-cost mass-producible solution, can become reality by merging the concepts of distributed satellite systems and terrestrial wireless sensor networks. However, unlike terrestrial sensor nodes, space-based nodes must survive unique environmental hazards while undergoing complex orbital dynamics. A novel sub-kilogram very small satellite design is needed to meet these requirements. Sub-kilogram satellite concepts are developing elsewhere, such as traditional picosatellites and microengineered aerospace systems. Although viable technical solutions, these technologies currently come at a high cost due to their reliance on high-density technology or custom manufacturing processes. While evaluating these technologies, two untapped technology areas became evident that uniquely encompass low cost and mass producibility by leveraging existing commercial production techniques: satellite-on-a-chip (SpaceChip) and satellite-on-a-printed circuit board (PCBSat). This paper focuses on the design, build, and test results of a prototype PCBSat with a prototype unit cost less than $300. The paper concludes with mission applications and future direction.     

A series of small scientific satellite with flexible standard bus

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency has a plan to develop the small satellite standard bus for various scientific missions and disaster monitoring missions. The satellite bus is a class of 250–400 kg mass with three-axis control capability of 0.02 accuracy. The science missions include X-ray astronomy missions, planetary telescope missions, and magnetosphere atmosphere missions. In order to adapt the wide range of mission requirements, the satellite bus has to be provided with flexibility. The concepts of modularization, reusability, and product line are applied to the standard bus system. This paper describes the characteristics of the small satellite standard bus which will be firstly launched in 2011.     

微波辐射计静止轨道遥感试验技术

在地球静止轨道上对大气进行微波遥感探测尚无先例。为验证静止轨道微波探测仪器关键技术,研究高轨微波辐射传输特性并积累遥感数据,研制了微波探测试验载荷,搭载于风云四号A星进行在轨试验。微波探测载荷采用真实孔径圆周扫描体系,配置双频段(183,425 GHz)五通道。载荷在轨试验中,各项指标正常,183GHz频段灵敏度优于0.5K,425GHz灵敏度优于1.9K,性能稳定并超过3个月考核寿命。对微波探测载荷183GHz与极轨载荷先进技术微波辐射计(advanced technology microwave sounder,ATMS)进行亮温交叉比对的结果显示,两者亮温相近,变化趋势一致,验证了探测数据的有效性。载荷还在静止轨道获取了极轨无法探知的3K/h量级亮温变化,并在风云四号A星姿态调整期间完成了静止轨道微波遥感成像。验证了在静止轨道上进行真实孔径体制微波遥感探测的有效性。     

大型星载天线桁架式可折展机构的模态分析

大型空间抛物柱面星载天线具有口径大、约束弱、刚度低、质量小等特点,其机构的空间稳定性直接决定天线的使用寿命和信息传输的可靠性。为准确获得大型空间星载天线在轨稳定性能参数,依据星载天线的高精度和长寿命的设计需求,提出一种新型抛物柱面星载天线结构形式,利用有限元仿真对该新型星载天线作模态分析,并分析相关参数。结果表明:采用Al7075材料的新型抛物柱面星载天线基频满足设计要求。同时,增加上下支杆和上下斜撑杆的截面尺寸可有效提高天线结构的固有频率。该研究为我国大型抛物柱面星载天线设计提供了理论支撑和技术参考。     

细长型双自旋静止卫星测控仿真

本文介绍了在计算机上进行细长型双自旋卫星姿态、轨道和重要遥测参数仿真的原理和方案。该方案考虑了卫星章动运动对姿态的影响，根据实时性和精度的要求，模拟卫星实际测控过程，对各种遥测量进行了仿真。基于该方案的仿真程序通过了星地大回路演练的检验，达到了预期的要求和目的。     

低轨星座对静止轨道卫星同频干扰指标研究

随着全球低轨星座系统的快速部署及应用,非静止轨道卫星对静止轨道卫星系统的同频干扰问题日益凸显。为保护静止轨道卫星系统不受有害干扰,国际电联现行无线电规则中规定了非静止轨道卫星系统应满足的等效功率通量密度限值或干扰噪声比限值,但所适用频段及限值标准仍在不断修订完善中。为了精确定量评估低轨星座对静止轨道卫星的同频干扰,通过对等效功率通量密度限值和干扰噪声比限值的确定方法及演进历程进行研究,分析了上述限值与静止轨道卫星实际被干扰的对应关系,并以典型倾斜轨道星座和极地轨道星座为例,分析了不同干扰指标对卫星系统间干扰判定结果的影响,当静止轨道卫星系统的实际被干扰门限低于国际电联制定等效功率通量密度限值选用的参考门限时,建议低轨星座选择干扰噪声比限值作为开展频率干扰分析与判定的依据。     

Geostationary station keeping control of a space elevator during initial cable deployment

This paper presents a basic concept to derive an orbital control strategy to achieve the full deployment and the geostationary station keeping of a space elevator during its initial cable deployment. The space elevator model is composed of a main spacecraft, a sinker mass and a massive cable connecting them. The cable elasticity, flexibility and taper of the cross-sectional area are omitted for simplification. A reference trajectory is designed so that the space elevator and its center of mass ascend vertically along the geostationary position with keeping the geostationary orbital rate. From the reference trajectory analyses, an orbital control that leads the space elevator orbit to the reference one is derived. However it is found that the reference trajectory is unstable throughout the deployment and a linear feedback control is introduced for stabilization. It is also clarified that the libration destabilizes the orbital control because the orbital acceleration caused by the libration always acts in the opposite direction to the orbital control. Therefore, a libration control is also introduced to stabilize the coupled orbital and librational motions. Numerical simulation result clearly shows that these controls facilitate the full deployment and the geostationary station keeping of the space elevator within the feasible thrust force and amount of propellant.     

Europe's major challenge for the 21st century: Access to space

Like the other great space powers of the 21st century, Europe has its own means of accessing space: Ariane, which has guaranteed its independence in the launching of civil and military satellites for almost 30 years and has won a significant part of the highly competitive commercial market. This market provides the Ariane system with the production volume indispensable for its reliability, which also benefits institutional launches. Europe's commercial market share will be even larger if the launch system is flexible and adaptable to the diversity of demand. Probable future technological changes make flexibility more necessary still. Two technical characteristics will be key: a large enough payload capacity and the injection of satellites into energetic orbits, including final geostationary orbit. But carrying out such missions will only be possible if a new generation upper stage is used. The November 2008 ESA ministerial meeting opted to wait until 2011 to decide whether this is necessary, making it doubtful whether Arianespace will be able to maintain leadership in the commercial market. The authors urge a rethink of this position.     

Enhancing ground communication of distributed space systems

The functionality of a distributed system can be significantly enhanced by exploring non-traditional approaches that leverage on inherent aspects of distributed systems in space. Till now, the benefit of distributed systems in space has been limited to enhancing coverage, multipoint sensing, creating virtual baselines (e.g. interferometry) or to enhance redundancy. The list of benefits can be further expanded by understanding the nature of distributed systems and by productively incorporating it into mission and spacecraft design. For example, prior knowledge of the spatial evolution of such systems can lead to innovative communication architectures for these distributed systems. In this paper, different communication scenarios are investigated that can enhance the communication link between the distributed system and ground.The increasing trend towards highly miniaturized spacecraft (nano- to femto-satellites) and proposals to launch hundreds or even thousands of them in massively distributed space missions have expanded the interest in distributed systems with miniature spacecraft. It is important to understand how and which, functionalities and systems, scale with size and number. Scalable systems are defined and addressed at a basic level and the utility of scaling rules and trends in identifying optimal configurations of distributed systems is explored.In this paper we focus on the communication capability and identify methods to enhance the communication link between a distributed space segment, consisting of a number of simplistic, resource limited femto-satellites, and earth. As an example, the concept of forming a dynamic phased array in space with the elements of a distributed space system in low-earth orbit is investigated. At the ground receiver, the signals from different satellites forming the array should not differ in phase by more than one-third the transmission wavelength, to ensure constructive superposition. Realizing such a phased array places strict accuracy requirements on time synchronization and knowledge of relative separation between the satellites with respect to the ground receiver. These constraints are derived and discussed.