Jupiter's radiation belts

The recent close encounters of Pioneer-10 (December 1973) and Pioneer-11 (December 1974) with the planet Jupiter provided the first in situ observations of zenomagnetically trapped particle radiation. Such observations represented a major advance in planetary research. Prior estimates of radiation intensities (particle fluxes) at Jupiter had necessarily relied (in the case of electrons) upon inferences from Jovian decimetric radio emission observed at the Earth and (in the case of protons) upon postulates for the numerical scaling from terrestrial proton intensities. The Pioneer-10 and Pioneer-11 observations have stimulated continuing theoretical efforts to understand the reported findings and to extrapolate from them to other planets and other epochs. While the analysis of trapped-radiation data from the Pioneer spacecraft is far from being completed, a consensus has developed with respect to the physical mechanisms that must be considered. The observed radiation belts seem to be populated by radial diffusion from an external source. The diffusion coefficient seems to be that derived from fluctuations in the polarization electric field produced by neutral winds in the Jovian ionosphere, which is coupled to the magnetosphere by equipotential B-field lines. Radiation-belt electrons lose energy and change their equatorial pitch angles by virtue of synchrotron emission. Radiation-belt ions and electrons both may be subject to pitch-angle diffusion caused by waves that the respective particle anisotropies have created through plasma instabilities. Finally, radiation-belt ions and electrons seem to experience absorption by the inner Jovian satellites (moons) in a manner that may depend upon the species and energy of the incident radiation-belt particle. It is not yet known whether satellite-associated clouds of sodium and sulfur contribute substantially to the inferred particle absorption. Also still open is the question of whether the satellites provide a substantial source of radiation-belt particles. Moreover, there remains doubt concerning the configuration of the outer Jovian magnetosphere and the influence of this configuration on the zenomagnetic trapping of energetic charged particles.Proceedings of the Symposium on Solar Terrestrial Physics held in Innsbruck, May–June 1978.     

The Lightning And Radio Emission Detector (LRD) instrument

The Lightning and Radio Emission Detector (LRD) instrument will be carried by the Galileo Probe into Jupiter's atmosphere. The LRD will verify the existence of lightning in the atmosphere and will determine the details of many of its basic characteristics. The instrument, operated in its magnetospheric mode at distances of about 5, 4, 3, and 2 planetary radii from Jupiter's center, will also measure the radio frequency (RF) noise spectrum in Jupiter's magnetosphere. The LRD instrument is composed of a ferritecore radio frequency antenna ( 100 Hz to 100 kHz) and two photodiodes mounted behind individual fisheye lenses. The output of the RF antenna is analyzed both separately and in coincidence with the optical signals from the photodiodes. The RF antenna provides data both in the frequency domain (with three narrow-band channels, primarily for deducing the physical properties of distant lightning) and in the time domain with a priority scheme (primarily for determining from individual RF waveforms the physical properties of closeby-lightning).     

Reverse shock acceleration of electrons and protons at mid-heliolatitudes from 5.3-3.8 AU

We examine the intensity, anisotropy and energy spectrum of 480–966 keV protons and 38–315 keV electrons observed by the HI-SCALE instrument on Ulysses associated with Corotating Interaction Regions (CIR) from mid-1992 to early 1994. The particle events are most clearly ordered by the reverse shocks bounding the CIRs. The bulk of the ion fluxes appear either straddling, or with their maximum intensity following, the reverse shock. The electron intensities rise sharply to their maximum upon the passage of the reverse shock, and are delayed with respect to the protons. We believe that following acceleration at the reverse shock the electrons re-enter the inner heliosphere and mirror, to return to the reverse shock for repeated acceleration. This process is more effective for electrons (vc/2) than for ions, and also favours the higher velocity electrons, which accounts for the observed spectral hardening with latitude.     

Electron,Proton, and Alpha Monitor on the Advanced Composition Explorer spacecraft

The Electron, Proton, and Alpha Monitor (EPAM) is designed to make measurements of ions and electrons over a broad range of energy and intensity. Through five separate solid-state detector telescopes oriented so as to provide nearly full coverage of the unit-sphere, EPAM can uniquely distinguish ions (Ei≳50 keV) and electrons (Ee≳40 keV) providing the context for the measurements of the high sensitivity instruments on ACE. Using a ΔE×E telescope, the instrument can determine ion elemental abundances (E≳0.5 MeV nucl−1). The large angular coverage and high time resolution will serve to alert the other instruments on ACE of interesting anisotropic events. The experiment is controlled by a microprocessor-based data system, and the entire instrument has been reconfigured from the HI-SCALE instrument on the Ulysses spacecraft. Inflight calibration is achieved using a variety of radioactive sources mounted on the reclosable telescope covers. Besides the coarse (8 channel) ion and (4 channel) electron energy spectra, the instrument is also capable of providing energy spectra with 32 logarithmically spaced channels using a pulse-height-analyzer. The instrument, along with its mounting bracket and radiators weighs 11.8 kg and uses about 4.0 W of power. To demonstrate some of the capabilities of the instrument, some initial performance data are included from a solar energetic particle event in November 1997. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The Solar Electron and Proton Telescope for the STEREO Mission

The Solar Electron and Proton Telescope (SEPT), one of four instruments of the Solar Energetic Particle (SEP) suite for the IMPACT investigation, is designed to provide the three-dimensional distribution of energetic electrons and protons with good energy and time resolution. This knowledge is essential for characterizing the dynamic behaviour of CME associated and solar flare associated events. SEPT consists of two dual double-ended magnet/foil particle telescopes which cleanly separate and measure electrons in the energy range from 30–400 keV and protons from 60–7?000 keV. Anisotropy information on a non-spinning spacecraft is provided by the two separate telescopes: SEPT-E looking in the ecliptic plane along the Parker spiral magnetic field both towards and away from the Sun, and SEPT-NS looking vertical to the ecliptic plane towards North and South. The dual set-up refers to two adjacent sensor apertures for each of the four view directions: one for protons, one for electrons. The double-ended set-up refers to the detector stack with view cones in two opposite directions: one side (electron side) is covered by a thin foil, the other side (proton side) is surrounded by a magnet. The thin foil leaves the electron spectrum essentially unchanged but stops low energy protons. The magnet sweeps away electrons but lets ions pass. The total geometry factor for electrons and protons is 0.52 cm²?sr and 0.68 cm²?sr, respectively. This paper describes the design and calibration of SEPT as well as the scientific objectives that the instrument will address.     

Magnetosphere Imaging Instrument (MIMI) on the Cassini Mission to Saturn/Titan

The magnetospheric imaging instrument (MIMI) is a neutral and charged particle detection system on the Cassini orbiter spacecraft designed to perform both global imaging and in-situ measurements to study the overall configuration and dynamics of Saturn’s magnetosphere and its interactions with the solar wind, Saturn’s atmosphere, Titan, and the icy satellites. The processes responsible for Saturn’s aurora will be investigated; a search will be performed for substorms at Saturn; and the origins of magnetospheric hot plasmas will be determined. Further, the Jovian magnetosphere and Io torus will be imaged during Jupiter flyby. The investigative approach is twofold. (1) Perform remote sensing of the magnetospheric energetic (E > 7 keV) ion plasmas by detecting and imaging charge-exchange neutrals, created when magnetospheric ions capture electrons from ambient neutral gas. Such escaping neutrals were detected by the Voyager l spacecraft outside Saturn’s magnetosphere and can be used like photons to form images of the emitting regions, as has been demonstrated at Earth. (2) Determine through in-situ measurements the 3-D particle distribution functions including ion composition and charge states (E > 3 keV/e). The combination of in-situ measurements with global images, together with analysis and interpretation techniques that include direct “forward modeling’’ and deconvolution by tomography, is expected to yield a global assessment of magnetospheric structure and dynamics, including (a) magnetospheric ring currents and hot plasma populations, (b) magnetic field distortions, (c) electric field configuration, (d) particle injection boundaries associated with magnetic storms and substorms, and (e) the connection of the magnetosphere to ionospheric altitudes. Titan and its torus will stand out in energetic neutral images throughout the Cassini orbit, and thus serve as a continuous remote probe of ion flux variations near 20R _S (e.g., magnetopause crossings and substorm plasma injections). The Titan exosphere and its cometary interaction with magnetospheric plasmas will be imaged in detail on each flyby. The three principal sensors of MIMI consists of an ion and neutral camera (INCA), a charge–energy–mass-spectrometer (CHEMS) essentially identical to our instrument flown on the ISTP/Geotail spacecraft, and the low energy magnetospheric measurements system (LEMMS), an advanced design of one of our sensors flown on the Galileo spacecraft. The INCA head is a large geometry factor (G ∼ 2.4 cm² sr) foil time-of-flight (TOF) camera that separately registers the incident direction of either energetic neutral atoms (ENA) or ion species (≥5^∘ full width half maximum) over the range 7 keV/nuc < E < 3 MeV/nuc. CHEMS uses electrostatic deflection, TOF, and energy measurement to determine ion energy, charge state, mass, and 3-D anisotropy in the range 3 ≤ E ≤ 220 keV/e with good (∼0.05 cm² sr) sensitivity. LEMMS is a two-ended telescope that measures ions in the range 0.03 ≤ E ≤ 18 MeV and electrons 0.015 ≤ E≤ 0.884 MeV in the forward direction (G ∼ 0.02 cm² sr), while high energy electrons (0.1–5 MeV) and ions (1.6–160 MeV) are measured from the back direction (G ∼ 0.4 cm² sr). The latter are relevant to inner magnetosphere studies of diffusion processes and satellite microsignatures as well as cosmic ray albedo neutron decay (CRAND). Our analyses of Voyager energetic neutral particle and Lyman-α measurements show that INCA will provide statistically significant global magnetospheric images from a distance of ∼60 R _S every 2–3 h (every ∼10 min from ∼20 R _S). Moreover, during Titan flybys, INCA will provide images of the interaction of the Titan exosphere with the Saturn magnetosphere every 1.5 min. Time resolution for charged particle measurements can be < 0.1 s, which is more than adequate for microsignature studies. Data obtained during Venus-2 flyby and Earth swingby in June and August 1999, respectively, and Jupiter flyby in December 2000 to January 2001 show that the instrument is performing well, has made important and heretofore unobtainable measurements in interplanetary space at Jupiter, and will likely obtain high-quality data throughout each orbit of the Cassini mission at Saturn. Sample data from each of the three sensors during the August 18 Earth swingby are shown, including the first ENA image of part of the ring current obtained by an instrument specifically designed for this purpose. Similarily, measurements in cis-Jovian space include the first detailed charge state determination of Iogenic ions and several ENA images of that planet’s magnetosphere.This revised version was published online in July 2005 with a corrected cover date.     

The High Energy Telescope for STEREO

The IMPACT investigation for the STEREO Mission includes a complement of Solar Energetic Particle instruments on each of the two STEREO spacecraft. Of these instruments, the High Energy Telescopes (HETs) provide the highest energy measurements. This paper describes the HETs in detail, including the scientific objectives, the sensors, the overall mechanical and electrical design, and the on-board software. The HETs are designed to measure the abundances and energy spectra of electrons, protons, He, and heavier nuclei up to Fe in interplanetary space. For protons and He that stop in the HET, the kinetic energy range corresponds to ～13 to 40 MeV/n. Protons that do not stop in the telescope (referred to as penetrating protons) are measured up to ～100 MeV/n, as are penetrating He. For stopping He, the individual isotopes ³He and ⁴He can be distinguished. Stopping electrons are measured in the energy range ～0.7–6 MeV.     

The Relativistic Electron-Proton Telescope (REPT) Instrument on Board the Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) Spacecraft: Characterization of Earth’s Radiation Belt High-Energy Particle Populations

Particle acceleration and loss in the million electron Volt (MeV) energy range (and above) is the least understood aspect of radiation belt science. In order to measure cleanly and separately both the energetic electron and energetic proton components, there is a need for a carefully designed detector system. The Relativistic Electron-Proton Telescope (REPT) on board the Radiation Belt Storm Probe (RBSP) pair of spacecraft consists of a stack of high-performance silicon solid-state detectors in a telescope configuration, a collimation aperture, and a thick case surrounding the detector stack to shield the sensors from penetrating radiation and bremsstrahlung. The instrument points perpendicular to the spin axis of the spacecraft and measures high-energy electrons (up to ～20 MeV) with excellent sensitivity and also measures magnetospheric and solar protons to energies well above E=100 MeV. The instrument has a large geometric factor (g=0.2 cm²?sr) to get reasonable count rates (above background) at the higher energies and yet will not saturate at the lower energy ranges. There must be fast enough electronics to avert undue dead-time limitations and chance coincidence effects. The key goal for the REPT design is to measure the directional electron intensities (in the range 10^?2–10⁶ particles/cm²?s?sr?MeV) and energy spectra (ΔE/E～25 %) throughout the slot and outer radiation belt region. Present simulations and detailed laboratory calibrations show that an excellent design has been attained for the RBSP needs. We describe the engineering design, operational approaches, science objectives, and planned data products for REPT.     

Energetic Particles and Corotating Interaction Regions in the Solar Wind

This paper reviews three important effects on energetic particles of corotating interaction regions (CIRs) in the solar wind that are formed at the leading edges of high-speed solar wind streams originating in coronal holes. A brief overview of CIRs and their important features is followed by a discussion of CIR-associated modulations in the galactic cosmic ray intensity, with an emphasis on observations made by spacecraft particle telescope ‘anti-coincidence’ guards. Such guards combine high counting rates (hundreds of counts/s) and a lower rigidity response than neutron monitors to provide detailed information on the relationship between cosmic ray modulations and CIR structure. The modulation of Jovian electrons by CIRs is then described. Finally, the acceleration of ions to energies of ～20 MeV/n in the vicinity of CIRs is reviewed.     

The plasma instrumentation for the Galileo Mission

The plasma instrumentation (PLS) for the Galileo Mission comprises a nested set of four spherical-plate electrostatic analyzers and three miniature, magnetic mass spectrometers. The three-dimensional velocity distributions of positive ions and electrons, separately, are determined for the energy-per-unit charge (E/Q) range of 0.9 V to 52 kV. A large fraction of the 4-steradian solid angle for charged particle velocity vectors is sampled by means of the fan-shaped field-of-view of 160°, multiple sensors, and the rotation of the spacecraft spinning section. The fields-of-view of the three mass spectrometers are respectively directed perpendicular and nearly parallel and anti-parallel to the spin axis of the spacecraft. These mass spectrometers are used to identify the composition of the positive ion plasmas, e.g., H⁺, O⁺, Na⁺, and S⁺, in the Jovian magnetosphere. The energy range of these three mass spectrometers is dependent upon the species. The maximum temporal resolutions of the instrument for determining the energy (E/Q) spectra of charged particles and mass (M/Q) composition of positive ion plasmas are 0.5 s. Three-dimensional velocity distributions of electrons and positive ions require a minimum sampling time of 20 s, which is slightly longer than the spacecraft rotation period. The two instrument microprocessors provide the capability of inflight implementation of operational modes by ground-command that are tailored for specific plasma regimes, e.g., magnetosheath, plasma sheet, cold and hot tori, and satellite wakes, and that can be improved upon as acquired knowledge increases during the tour of the Jovian magnetosphere. Because the instrument is specifically designed for measurements in the environs of Jupiter with the advantages of previous surveys with the Voyager spacecraft, first determinations of many plasma phenomena can be expected. These observational objectives include field-aligned currents, three-dimensional ion bulk flows, pickup ions from the Galilean satellites, the spatial distribution of plasmas throughout most of the magnetosphere and including the magnetotail, and ion and electron flows to and from the Jovian ionosphere.     

Charged-particle telescope experiment on Clementine

The charged-particle telescope (CPT) onboard the Clementine spacecraft measured the fluxes of energetic protons emitted in solar energetic particle events. Protons in the energy range from 10 to 80 MeV were of greatest interest for radiation effects such as total dose and single event upsets. Energetic electrons were also of interest for spacecraft charging and their contribution to total dose. The lower-energy CPT electron channels (25-500 keV) were mainly of geophysical interest. While orbiting the moon, the CPT observed the wake created by the moon when it blocked the flow of energetic particles in the magnetotail region. The CPT provided opportunities to observe energetic electron bursts during magnetic storms and magnetospheric substorms. CPT data are particularly useful in multispacecraft studies of interplanetary disturbances and their interaction with the magnetosphere. The proton channels on the CPT provided data on solar energetic protons and storm-time protons associated with the passage of an interplanetary shock at 0903 UT on Feb. 21, 1994. Results are compared with those from GOES-7, SAMPEX, and GEOTAIL.     

Energetics of terrestrial and Jovian magnetospheres

Energy supply rates to magnetospheres of Earth and Jupiter are estimated on the basis of most recent information on controlling parameters, and these are compared with energy consumption rates inside respective magnetospheres. Dominant role played by the reconnection process is suggested, but the high ejection rate of energetic electrons from the Jovian magnetosphere reported by Conlon (1978) might suggest the importance of the planetary rotation as the energy source.Proceedings of the Symposium on Solar Terrestrial Physics held in Innsbruck, May–June 1978.     

Solar cosmic radiation during August 1972

Low energy cosmic rays produced by the spectacular series of solar flares in August 1972 are reviewed. Satellite observations of electrons, protons and alpha particles are compared. The proton differential energy spectrum is discussed at certain key times during the events. Three energetic storm particle events were produced over the time period covered by the detailed analysis, 2–11 August. The origin of the cosmic ray square wave on 5 August is discussed. Measurements of heavy ions are available both from Pioneer 10 and from a high latitude rocket flight on 4 August.The literature survey for this review was concluded in August 1975.     

The Jupiter helium interferometer experiment on the Galileo Entry Probe

We discuss the scientific objective, instrument design, and calibration of a miniaturized Jamin-Mascart interferometer which is to perform an accurate measurement of the refractive index of the Jovian atmosphere in the pressure range 2.5 to 10 bar. The instrument is to perform this measurement in December 1995 aboard the entry probe of the NASA Galileo spacecraft. From the data obtained the mole fraction of helium in the atmosphere of Jupiter is to be calculated with an estimated uncertainty of ± 0.0015. The instrument has a total mass of 1.4 kg and consumes 0.9 W of electrical power.     

Summary of quantitative interpretation of IMAGE far ultraviolet auroral data

Direct imaging of the magnetosphere by instruments on the IMAGE spacecraft is supplemented by simultaneous observations of the global aurora in three far ultraviolet (FUV) wavelength bands. The purpose of the multi-wavelength imaging is to study the global auroral particle and energy input from the magnetosphere into the atmosphere. This paper describes the method for quantitative interpretation of FUV measurements. The Wide-Band Imaging Camera (WIC) provides broad band ultraviolet images of the aurora with maximum spatial resolution by imaging the nitrogen lines and bands between 140 and 180 nm wavelength. The Spectrographic Imager (SI), a dual wavelength monochromatic instrument, images both Doppler-shifted Lyman-α emissions produced by precipitating protons, in the SI-12 channel and OI 135.6 nm emissions in the SI-13 channel. From the SI-12 Doppler shifted Lyman-α images it is possible to obtain the precipitating proton flux provided assumptions are made regarding the mean energy of the protons. Knowledge of the proton (flux and energy) component allows the calculation of the contribution produced by protons in the WIC and SI-13 instruments. Comparison of the corrected WIC and SI-13 signals provides a measure of the electron mean energy, which can then be used to determine the electron energy flux. To accomplish this, reliable emission modeling and instrument calibrations are required. In-flight calibration using early-type stars was used to validate the pre-flight laboratory calibrations and determine long-term trends in sensitivity. In general, very reasonable agreement is found between in-situ measurements and remote quantitative determinations.     

Galileo trajectory design

The Galileo spacecraft was launched by the Space Shuttle Atlantis on October 18, 1989. A two-stage Inertial Upper Stage propelled Galileo out of Earth parking orbit to begin its 6-year interplanetary transfer to Jupiter. Galileo has already received two gravity assists: from Venus on February 10, 1990 and from Earth on December 8, 1990. After a second gravity-assist flyby of Earth on December 8, 1992, Galileo will have achieved the energy necessary to reach Jupiter. Galileo's interplanetary trajectory includes a close flyby of asteroid 951-Gaspra on October 29, 1991, and, depending on propellant availability and other factors, there may be a second asteroid flyby of 243-Ida on August 28, 1993. Upon arrival at Jupiter on December 7, 1995, the Galileo Orbiter will relay data back to Earth from an atmospheric Probe which is released five months earlier. For about 75 min, data is transmitted to the Orbiter from the Probe as it descends on a parachute to a pressure depth of 20–30 bars in the Jovian atmosphere. Shortly after the end of Probe relay, the Orbiter ignites its rocket motor to insert into orbit about Jupiter. The orbital phase of the mission, referred to as the satellite tour, lasts nearly two years, during which time Galileo will complete 10 orbits about Jupiter. On each of these orbits, there will be a close encounter with one of the three outermost Galilean satellites (Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto). The gravity assist from each satellite is designed to target the spacecraft to the next encounter with minimal expenditure of propellant. The nominal mission is scheduled to end in October 1997 when the Orbiter enters Jupiter's magnetotail.List of Acronyms ASI Atmospheric Structure Instrument - EPI Energetic Particles Instrument - HGA High Gain Antenna - IUS Inertial Upper Stage - JOI Jupiter Orbit Insertion - JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory - LRD Lightning and Radio Emissions Detector - NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration - NEP Nephelometer - NIMS Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer - ODM Orbit Deflection Maneuver - OTM Orbit Trim Maneuver - PJR Perijove Raise Maneuver - PM Propellant Margin - PDT Pacific Daylight Time - PST Pacific Standard Time - RPM Retropropulsion Module - RRA Radio Relay Antenna - SSI Solid State Imaging - TCM Trajectory Correction Maneuver - UTC Universal Time Coordinated - UVS Ultraviolet Spectrometer - VEEGA Venus-Earth-Earth Gravity Assist     

Auroral electrons

Satellite and rocket measurements of auroral electrons (which have been made since Brown's (1966) and Pfister's (1967) papers have appeared) are reviewed, and the salient characteristics of auroral electrons which emerge from all types of measurements are summarized. Effects of the atmosphere on the energy distribution of electron fluxes are discussed. Ionization rates associated with typical fluxes are derived. Observable effects produced in the atmosphere and the fate of auroral electrons are briefly described.This paper does not discuss the role of auroral protons (or particles). A recent review on the subject has been given by Eather (1967).     

‘Good’ events selection efficiency of the scintillation time-of-flight system of the Gamma-1 telescope in the 30–300 MeV energy range

The scintillation time-of-flight triggering system of the Gamma-1 gamma-ray telescope provides for both the time-of-flight discrimination and the pulse height discrimination of the secondary particles. The paper gives some experimental results for energy dependence of the instrument efficiency in 30–300 MeV energy range for different trigger logics.     

ATS-6 Synchronousi Orbit Trapped Radiation Studies with an Electron-Proton Spectrometer

The University of Minnesota Electron-Proton Spectrometer Experiment consists of two nearly identical detector assemblies. One of these assemblies was mounted in a position fixed on the satellite in the Environmental Measurements Experiments (EME) east direction and the other was rotated so that the spectrometer scanned a range of spatial directions covering 1800 from EME north to EME south through west. Each of the detector assemblies is a magnetic spectrometer containing four gold-silicon surface barrier detectors. This instrument provides a very clean separation between protons and electrons by the combination of pulse height analysis and magnetic deflection. Each detector assembly measures protons in three nominal energy ranges (30-50 keV), (50-160 keV), and (120-514 keV). Electrons also are measured in three energy intervals (30-50 keV), (150-214 keV), and (more than 500 keV). Data are transmitted from the experiment at rates as high as 8 measurements/s. Decreases in the flux of the energetic electrons and protons followed by very rapid increases are frequently observed on the nightside during periods of geomagnetic activity. Separation of temporal and spatial effects is possible using proton gradient information obtained when the detector systems are oppositely directed. Using this technique, the decreases have been interpreted as motion of the trapping region equatorward and Earthward of the satellite. The boundary motion associated with the particle recovery shows a marked local time dependence. Particle increases observed in the evening sector have been interpreted as motion from Earthward and equatorward of Applications Technology Satellite-6 (ATS-6).     

Cosmic ray investigation for the Voyager missions; energetic particle studies in the outer heliosphere—And beyond

A cosmic-ray detector system (CRS) has been developed for the Voyager mission which will measure the energy spectrum of electrons from 3–110 MeV and the energy spectra and elemental composition of all cosmic-ray nuclei from hydrogen through iron over an energy range from 1–500 MeV/nuc. Isotopes of hydrogen through sulfur will be resolved from 2–75 MeV/nuc. Studies with CRS data will provide information on the energy content, origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamics of cosmic rays in the galaxy, and contribute to an understanding of the nucleosynthesis of elements in the cosmic-ray sources. Particular emphasis will be placed on low-energy phenomena that are expected to exist in interstellar space and are known to be present in the outer Solar System. This investigation will also add to our understanding of the transport of cosmic rays, Jovian electrons, and low-energy interplanetary particles over an extended region of interplanetary space. A major contribution to these areas of study will be the measurement of three-dimensional streaming patterns of nuclei from H through Fe and electrons over an extended energy range, with a precision that will allow determination of anisotropies down to 1%. The required combination of charge resolution, reliability and redundance has been achieved with systems consisting entirely of solid-state charged-particle detectors.Principal Investigator of the Voyager Cosmic Ray Experiment.