Fluid-electrolyte changes in physically conditioned subjects after hypokinesia and chronic hyperhydration

The aim of this study was to determine whether fluid-electrolyte changes, which are developed during prolonged hypokinesia (decreased number of km per day), can be prevented or minimized with the use of a daily intake of fluid and salt supplementation (FSS). The experiments on hypokinesia (HK) were performed for 364 days on 18 endurance-trained male volunteers in the age range of 21-23 years, with an average maximum oxygen uptake of 67 ml kg-1. All volunteers were divided into three equal groups: six volunteers were placed on a continuous regime of exercise of 14.0 km day-1 and served as control subjects. Six volunteers were subjected to continuous HK without FSS and were considered as the unsupplemented hypokinetic subjects (UHS). The remaining volunteers were under continuous HK and FSS and were considered as the supplemented hypokinetic subjects (SHS). For the simulation of the hypokinetic effect, the UHS and SHS groups were kept continuously under an average of 2.7 km day-1 for the duration of the experiment. Prior to exposure to HK, all volunteers were on the same exercise regime as the controls. During the pre-experimental period of 60 days and during the post-experimental period, urinary excretion of electrolytes and concentrations of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium in serum as well as serum osmolality were determined. An increased renal excretion of fluid and electrolytes and a decreased serum electrolyte concentration were observed in the SHS, while a decreased renal excretion of fluid and electrolytes and an increased serum electrolyte concentration were observed in the UHS, during the initial stages of the post-hypokinetic period. By day 30 of the post-hypokinetic period these changes were reverted back to the control levels. We concluded that chronic hyperhydration may be used to attenuate urinary and serum electrolyte changes in endurance-trained volunteers after exposure to prolonged HK.     

Fluid electrolyte and hormonal changes in conditioned and unconditioned men under hypokinesia

It has been suggested that hypokinesia (diminished muscular activity) may induce more changes in fluid electrolyte metabolism and hormonal concentration of blood plasma in conditioned than unconditioned men. Thus, the objective of this investigation was to determine the effect of 7 days of hypokinesis (HK) on fluid-electrolyte excretion and hormonal content of blood in 12 physically healthy men aged 19-23 years. They were divided into two equal groups according to their physical conditioning. For the simulation of the hypokinetic effect the men were kept under a rigorous bed rest regime. During the background period (BGP), that is prior to the exposure to HK, and under HK, the rate of elimination of fluid, sodium and potassium, and the content of blood plasma aldosterone and cortisol was measured. The amount of excretion of fluid and electrolytes increased while blood plasma aldosterone content decreased. In the conditioned men, a greater excretion of fluid and electrolytes and a greater reduction of plasma aldosterone concentration was observed. It was concluded that hypokinesia induced substantial changes in fluid-electrolyte excretion and hormonal content of blood plasma in both conditioned and unconditioned men.     

Fluid electrolyte excretion during different hypokinetic body positions of trained subjects

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different body positions on renal excretion of fluid and electrolytes after exposure to 364 days of decreased number of steps per day (hypokinesia, HK). The studies were performed on 18 endurance trained male volunteers aged 19-24 years who had an average of VO2max 67 ml/kg body/min. All volunteers were divided into three equal groups: the 1st group subjected to 12 h orthostatic position (OP) and 12 h clinostatic position (CP)/day, the 2nd group exposed to 8 h orthostatic position and 14 h clinostatic position/day, and the 3rd group submitted to 10 h orthostatic position and 16 h clinostatic position/day for 364 days. For the simulation of the hypokinetic effect all volunteers were kept under an average of 3000 steps/day for 364 days. Diuresis and the concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium and magnesium as well as excretion of creatine were determined in 24-h urine samples. By the end of the hypokinetic period all volunteers, regardless of their body position during HK, manifested a significant increase in renal excretion of fluid and electrolytes as compared to prehypokinetic period values. It was concluded that prolonged restriction of motor activity induced a significant increase in renal excretion of fluid and electrolytes in endurance trained subjects regardless to their body position and duration thereof per day.     

Fluid and salt supplementation effect on body hydration and electrolyte homeostasis during bed rest and ambulation

Bed rest (BR) induces significant urinary and blood electrolyte changes, but little is known about the effect of fluid and salt supplements (FSS) on catabolism, hydration and electrolytes. The aim was to measure the effect of FSS on catabolism, body hydration and electrolytes during BR.

Studies were done during 7 days of a pre-bed rest period and during 30 days of a rigorous bed rest period. Thirty male athletes aged, 24.6±7.6 years were chosen as subjects. They were divided into three groups: unsupplemented ambulatory control subjects (UACS), unsupplemented bed rested subjects (UBRS) and supplemented bed rested subjects (SBRS). The UBRS and SBRS groups were kept under a rigorous bed rest regime for 30 days. The SBRS daily took 30 ml water per kg body weight and 0.1 sodium chloride per kg body weight.

Plasma sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) levels, urinary Na, K, Ca and Mg excretion, plasma osmolality, plasma protein level, whole blood hemoglobin (Hb) and hematocrit (Hct) level increased significantly (p≤0.05), while plasma volume (PV), body weight, body fat, peak oxygen uptake, food and fluid intake decreased significantly (p≤0.05) in the UBRS group when compared with the SBRS and UACS groups. In contrast, plasma and urinary electrolytes, osmolality, protein level, whole blood Hct and Hb level decreased significantly (p≤0.05), while PV, fluid intake, body weight and peak oxygen uptake increased significantly (p≤0.05) in the SBRS group when compared with the UBRS group. The measured parameters did not change significantly in the UACS group when compared with their baseline control values.

The data indicate that FSS stabilizes electrolytes and body hydration during BR, while BR alone induces significant changes in electrolytes and body hydration. We conclude that FSS may be used to prevent catabolism and normalize body hydration status and electrolyte values during BR.     

Effect of fluid and salt supplementation on body hydration of athletes during prolonged hypokinesia

Body hydration decreases significantly during hypokinesia (HK) (diminished movement), but little is known about the effect of fluid and salt supplements (FSS) on body hydration during HK. The aim of this study was to measure the effect of FSS on body hydration during HK. Studies were done during 30 days pre HK period and 364 days HK period. Thirty male athletes aged 24.5 +/- 6.6 yr were chosen as subjects. They were equally divided into three groups: unsupplemented ambulatory control subjects (UACS), unsupplemented hypokinetic subjects (UHKS) and supplemented hypokinetic subjects (SHKS). Hypokinetic subjects were limited to an average walking distance of 0.7 km day-1. The SHKS group took daily 30 ml of water/kg body weight and 0.1 g of sodium chloride (NaCl)/kg body weight. Control subjects experienced no changes in their professional training and routine daily activities. Plasma volume (PV), urinary and plasma sodium (Na) and potassium (K), plasma osmolality, plasma protein, whole blood hemoglobin (Hb) and hematocrit (Hct), plasma renin activity (PRA) plasma aldosterone (PA) levels, physical characteristics, food and fluid intakes were measured. Plasma osmolality, plasma protein, urinary and plasma Na and K, whole blood Hct and Hb, PRA and PA levels decreased significantly (p < or = 0.01), while PV and body weight increased significantly (p < or = 0.01) in the SHKS group when compared with the UHKS group and did not change when compared with the UACS group. Plasma osmolality, plasma protein, urinary and plasma Na and K, PRA and PA, whole blood Hb and Hct levels increased significantly (p < or = 0.01), while PV body weight, food and fluid intakes decreased significantly (p < or = 0.01) in UHKS group when compared with the SHKS and UACS groups. The measured parameters did not change in the UACS group when compared with their baseline control values. It was shown that during HK body hydration decreased significantly, while during HK and FSS body hydration increased significantly. It was concluded that daily intake of FSS prevents the decrease of PV and blunts the increase of activity of the PRA and PA during prolonged HK.     

Electrolytes in femur and plasma of rats during prolonged restriction of motor activity.

Hypokinesia (decreased motor activity) induces insignificant bone mineral changes. The aim of this study was to measure mineralization, density, and also electrolyte content in the femur of rats during prolonged hypokinesia (HK). Studies were done on 144 male Wistar rats (370-390 g) during 15 days period of pre-HK and 90 days period of HK. Rats were equally divided into two groups: hypokinetic rats (HKR) and vivarium control (VCR). The HKR group of rats was kept in small individual cages. Femur mineralization density, ash mineral content, calcium (Ca) and phosphate (P) content, and plasma Ca and P concentration were measured. In the HKR group body weight, femur mineralization, density, ash mineral content, Ca and P concentration decreased significantly (p < or = 0.01) while plasma Ca and P concentration increased significantly (p < or = 0.01) when compared with the VCR group. The measured parameters did not change significantly in the VCR group when compared with the baseline control values. It was concluded that prolonged HK induces a significant reduction in electrolyte concentration accompanied by decreased mineralization, density, and ash mineral content of the femur of rats.     

Renal excretion of water in men under hypokinesia and physical exercise with fluid and salt supplementation

It has been suggested that under hypokinesia (reduced number of steps/day) and intensive physical exercise, the intensification of fluid excretion in men is apparently caused as a result of the inability of the body to retain optimum amounts of water. Thus, to evaluate this hypothesis, studies were performed with the use of fluid and sodium chloride (NaCl) supplements on 12 highly trained physically healthy male volunteers aged 19-24 years under 364 days of hypokinesis (HK) and a set of intensive physical exercises (PE). They were divided into two groups with 6 volunteers per group. The first group of subjects were submitted to HK and took daily fluid and salt supplements in very small doses and the second group of volunteers were subjected to intensive PE and fluid-salt supplements. For the simulation of the hypokinetic effect, both groups of subjects were kept under an average of 4000 steps/day. During the prehypokinetic period of 60 days and under the hypokinetic period of 364 days water consumed and eliminated in urine by the men, water content in blood, plasma volume, rate of glomerular filtration, renal blood flow, osmotic concentration of urine and blood were measured. Under HK, the rate of renal excretion of water increased considerably in both groups. The additional fluid and salt intake failed to normalize water balance adequately under HK and PE. It was concluded that negative water balance evidently resulted not from shortage of water in the diet but from the inability of the body to retain optimum amounts of fluid under HK and a set of intensive PEs.     

The endocrine system in space flight

Hormones are important effectors of the body's response to microgravity in the areas of fluid and electrolyte metabolism, erythropoiesis, and calcium metabolism. For many years antidiuretic hormone, cortisol and aldosterone have been considered the hormones most important for regulation of body fluid volume and blood levels of electrolytes, but they cannot account totally for losses of fluid and electrolytes during space flight. We have now measured atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), a hormone recently shown to regulate sodium and water excretion, in blood specimens obtained during flight. After 30 or 42 h of weightlessness, mean ANF was elevated. After 175 or 180 h, ANF had decreased by 59%, and it changed little between that time and soon after landing. There is probably an increase in ANF early inflight associated with the fluid shift, followed by a compensatory decrease in blood volume. Increased renal blood flow may cause the later ANF decrease. Erythropoietin (Ep), a hormone involved in the control of red blood cell production, was measured in blood samples taken during the first Spacelab mission and was significantly decreased on the second day of flight, suggesting also an increase in renal blood flow. Spacelab-2 investigators report that the active vitamin D metabolite 1 alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 increased early in the flight, indicating that a stimulus for increased bone resorption occurs by 30 h after launch.     

Medical considerations for extending human presence in space

The prospects for extending the length of time that humans can safely remain in space depend partly on resolution of a number of medical issues. Physiologic effects of weightlessness that may affect health during flight include loss of body fluid, functional alterations in the cardiovascular system, loss of red blood cells and bone mineral, compromised immune system function, and neurosensory disturbances. Some of the physiologic adaptations to weightlessness contribute to difficulties with readaptation to Earth's gravity. These include cardiovascular deconditioning and loss of body fluids and electrolytes; red blood cell mass; muscle mass, strength, and endurance; and bone mineral. Potentially harmful factors in space flight that are not related to weightlessness include radiation, altered circadian rhythms and rest/work cycles, and the closed, isolated environment of the spacecraft. There is no evidence that space flight has long-term effects on humans, except that bone mass lost during flight may not be replaced, and radiation damage is cumulative. However, the number of people who have spent several months or longer in space is still small. Only carefully-planned experiments in space preceded by thorough ground-based studies can provide the information needed to increase the amount of time humans can safely spend in space.     

Effect of potassium and calcium loading on healthy subjects under hypokinesia and physical exercise with fluid and salt supplements

The objective of this investigation was to determine the acute responses to the electrolyte challenges under hypokinesia and physical exercise (PE) of different intensities with fluid and salt supplementation (FSS). The studies were performed on 12 physically healthy male volunteers aged 19-24 years under 364 days of hypokinesia (decreased number of steps per day) with a set of PE with FSS. The volunteers were divided into two equal groups. The first group was subjected to a set of intensive PE and the second group was submitted to a set of moderate PE. Both groups of subjects consumed daily water and salt supplements that aimed to increase the body hydration level. For simulation of the hypokinetic effect all subjects were kept under an average of 3000 steps per day. Functional tests with a potassium chloride (KCl) and calcium lactate (Cal) load were performed during the hypokinetic period of 364 days and the 60-day, prehypokinetic period that served as control, while both groups of subjects consumed daily calcium and potassium supplements. The concentration of electrolyte and hormone levels in the blood and their excretion rate in urine were determined. Renal excretion of calcium and potassium and the blood concentration thereof increased markedly in both groups of subjects. With the potassium chloride load tests the increased potassium excretion was accompanied by higher aldosterone and insulin blood levels, and with the calcium lactate load tests the increased calcium excretion was accompanied by a decreased parathyroid content in the blood. FSS and PE, regardless of intensity, failed to attenuate calcium and potassium losses. Additional intake of KCl and Cal also failed to normalize potassium and calcium abnormalities. It was concluded that during the KCl and Cal loading tests, the increased losses of potassium and calcium in the hypokinetic subjects were due to the inability of their bodies to retain these electrolytes, and that electrolyte abnormalities could not be reversed by PE or rehydration in individuals subjected to prolonged restriction of motor activity.     

Endocrine responses in long-duration manned space flight

The bioassay of body fluids experiment is designed to evaluate the biochemical adaptation resulting from extended exposure to space flight environment by identifying changes in hormonal and associated fluid and electrolyte parameters reflected in the blood and urine of the participating crewmen. The combined stresses of space flight include weightlessness, acceleration, confinement, restraint, long-term maintenance of high levels of performance, and possible desynchronosis. Endocrine measurements to assess the physiological cost of these stresses have been considered from two aspects. Fluid and electrolyte balance have been correlated with weight loss, changes in the excretion of aldosterone and vasopressin and fluid compartments. The second area involves the estimation of the physiological cost of maintaining a given level of performance during space flight by analysis of urinary catecholamines and cortisol. Inter-individual variability was demonstrated in most experimental indices measured; however, constant patterns have emerged which include: body weight change; increases in plasma renin activity; elevations in urinary catecholamines, ADH, aldosterone and cortisol concentrations. Plasma cortisol decreases in immediate postflight samples with subsequent increase in 24-hour urines. The measured changes are consistent with the prediction that a relative increase in thoracic blood volume upon transition to the zero-gravity environment is interpreted as a true volume expansion resulting in an osmotic diuresis. This diuresis in association with other factors ultimately results in a reduction in intravascular volume, leading to an increase in renin and a secondary aldosteronism. Once these compensatory mechanisms are effective in reestablishing positive water balance, the crewmen are considered to be essentially adapted to the null-gravity environment. Although the physiological cost of this adaptation must reflect the electrolyte deficit and perhaps other factors, it is assumed that the compensated state is adequate for the demands of the environment; however, this new homeostatic set is not believed to be without physiological cost and could, except with proper precautions, reduce the functional reserve of exposed individuals.     

Effect of hyperhydration on bone mineralization in physically healthy subjects after prolonged restriction of motor activity

The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the effect of a daily intake of fluid and salt supplementation (FSS) on bone mineralization in physically healthy male volunteers after exposure to hypokinesia (decreased number of steps taken/day) over a period of 364 days. The studies were performed after exposure to 364 days of hypokinesia (HK) on 18 physically healthy male volunteers who had an average VO2max of 65 ml/kg/min and were aged between 19 and 24 years. For the simulation of the hypokinetic effect the volunteers were kept under an average of 1000 steps/day. The subjects were divided into three equal groups of 6: 6 underwent a normal ambulatory life (control group), 6 were placed under HK (hypokinetic group) and the remaining 6 were subjected to HK and consumed a daily FSS (water 26 ml/kg body wt and NaCl 0.10 mg/kg body wt) (hyperhydrated group). The density of the ulnar, radius, tibia, fibular, lumbar vertebrae and calcenous was measured. Calcium and phosphorus changes, plasma volume, blood pressure and body weight were determined. Calcium content in the examined skeletal bones decreased more in the hypokinetic subjects than in the hyperhydrated subjects. Urinary calcium and phosphorus losses were more pronounced in hypokinetic than hyperhydrated subjects. Plasma volume and body weight increased in hyperhydrated subjects, while it decreased in hypokinetic subjects. It was concluded that a daily intake of FSS may be used to neutralize bone demineralization in physically healthy subjects during prolonged restriction of motor activity.     

Assessment of the efficacy of medical countermeasures in space flight

Changes in body fluids, electrolytes, and muscle mass are manifestations of adaptation to space flight and readaptation to the 1-g environment. The purposes of this paper are to review the current knowledge of biomedical responses to short- and long-duration space missions and to assess the efficacy of countermeasures to 1-g conditioning. Exercise protocols, fluid hydration, dietary and potential pharmacologic measures are evaluated, and directions for future research activities are recommended.     

Understanding metabolic alterations in space flight using quantitative models: fluid and energy balance

This report summarizes many of the results obtained during the Skylab program, on metabolic changes during weightlessness. The examination of the data was conducted following an integrated multi-disciplinary and multi-experimental approach. Emphasis is given on several major aspects of metabolic adaptation to space flight: fluid-electrolyte regulation, mechanisms of hormone disturbances, energy balance and etiology of weight loss. The aim is to obtain a composite picture of the fluid, electrolyte and energy response to weightlessness.     

锂离子电池单离子导体聚合物电解质研究进展

锂离子电池在3C电子产品和动力汽车电池行业广泛应用,在航天电源领域也展现出一定的前景。单离子导体是基本仅由参与电化学反应的锂离子迁移的电解质体系,解决传统锂离子电池液态电解质存在的副反应和阴离子的浓差极化等问题,改善电池的库伦效率和循环寿命。研究者们发展了多种类型的单离子导体电解质。本文总结了近5年来不同阴离子类型的单离子导体聚合物电解质合成策略以及分子动力学模拟计算的最新进展。     

Ion regulatory function of the human kidney in prolonged space flights.

Ten cosmonauts, who performed 30-175-day space flights aboard Salyut-4 and Salyut-6, and over 60 test subjects who were exposed to bed rest of up to 182 days and immersion of up to 56 days, were examined. The renal excretion of potassium and calcium increased, reaching a maximum by the 4-6th weeks in prolonged space flights and simulation studies. During the load tests with potassium and calcium salt, excretion postflight was much higher than preflight. During potassium chloride load tests a positive correlation between the blood content of aldosterone and potassium excretion existed, whereas during calcium lactate load tests an increased calcium excretion was accompanied by a decrease in blood parathyroid hormone concentration. The most probable cause of the negative ion balance in weightlessness is the reduced capacity of tissues to retain electrolytes due to the decreased ion pool capacity. Different exercises have been shown to exert a beneficial effect on electrolyte metabolism.     

高压管路快速连接件设计与应用

管路连接操作在液体火箭发动机组件液流试验中非常频繁,为了提高试验效率、降低试验过程中密封件的损耗,需要将现用的连接方式进行改进,而高压快速连接接头在国内市场并没有成品。因此,结合实际操作对液流试验用的连接接头进行了重新设计,并经过不断改进和验证,达到了快速、可靠的连接目的。     

Choroidal responses in microgravity. (SLS-1, SLS-2 and hindlimb-suspension experiments)

Fluid and electrolyte shifts occuring during human spaceflight have been reported and investigated at the level of blood, cardio-vascular and renal responses. Very few data were available concerning the cerebral fluid and electrolyte adaptation to microgravity, even in animal models. It is the reason why we developed several studies focused on the effects of spaceflight (SLS-1 and SLS-2 programs, carried on NASA STS 40 and 56 missions, which were 9- and 14-day flights, respectively), on structural and functional features of choroid plexuses, organs which secrete 70–90 % of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and which are involved in brain homeostasis. Rats flown aboard space shuttles were sacrificed either in space (SLS-2 experiment, on flight day 13) or 4–8 hours after landing (SLS-1 and SLS-2 experiments). Quantitative autoradiography performed by microdensitometry and image analysis, showed that lateral and third ventricle choroid plexuses from rats flown for SLS-1 experiment demonstrated an increased number (about x 2) of binding sites to natriuretic peptides (which are known to be involved in mechanisms regulating CSF production). Using electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry, we studied the cellular response of choroid plexuses, which produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in brain lateral, third and fourth ventricles. We demonstrated that spaceflight (SLS-2 experiment, inflight samples) induces changes in the choroidal cell structure (apical microvilli, kinocilia organization, vesicle accumulation) and protein distribution or expression (carbonic anhydrase II, water channels,…). These observations suggested a loss of choroidal cell polarity and a decrease in CSF secretion. Hindlimb-suspended rats displayed similar choroidal changes. All together, these results support the hypothesis of a modified CSF production in rats during long-term (9, 13 or 14 days) adaptations to microgravity.