Temperature effects in the ATIC BGO calorimeter

The Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter (ATIC) Balloon Experiment had a successful test flight and a science flight in 2000–01 and 2002–03 and an unsuccessful launch in 2005–06 from McMurdo, Antarctica, returning 16 and 19 days of flight data. ATIC is designed to measure the spectra of cosmic rays (protons to iron). The instrument is composed of a Silicon matrix detector followed by a carbon target interleaved with scintillator tracking layers and a segmented BGO calorimeter composed of 320 individual crystals totaling 18 radiation lengths to determine the particle energy. BGO (Bismuth Germanate) is an inorganic scintillation crystal and its light output depends not only on the energy deposited by particles but also on the temperature of the crystal. The temperature of balloon instruments during flight is not constant due to sun angle variations as well as differences in albedo from the ground. The change in output for a given energy deposit in the crystals in response to temperature variations was determined.     

Resolving electrons from protons in ATIC

The Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter (ATIC) experiment is designed for high energy cosmic ray ion detection. The possibility to identify high energy primary cosmic ray electrons in the presence of the ‘background’ of cosmic ray protons has been studied by simulating nuclear-electromagnetic cascade showers using the FLUKA Monte Carlo simulation code. The ATIC design, consisting of a graphite target and an energy detection device, a totally active calorimeter built up of 2.5 cm × 2.5 cm × 25.0 cm BGO scintillator bars, gives sufficient information to distinguish electrons from protons. While identifying about 80% of electrons as such, only about 2 in 10,000 protons (@ 150 GeV) will mimic electrons. In September of 1999 ATIC was exposed to high-energy electron and proton beams at the CERN H2 beam line, and this data confirmed the electron detection capabilities of ATIC. From 2000-12-28 to 2001-01-13 ATIC was flown as a long duration balloon test flight from McMurdo, Antarctica, recording over 360 h of data and allowing electron separation to be confirmed in the flight data. In addition, ATIC electron detection capabilities can be checked by atmospheric gamma-ray observations.     

The energy spectra of protons and helium measured with the ATIC experiment

The Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter (ATIC) balloon experiment is designed to investigate the composition and energy spectra of cosmic rays at the highest energies currently accessible by direct measurements, i.e., the region up to 100 TeV. The instrument consists of a silicon matrix for charge measurement, a graphite target (0.75 nuclear interaction length) to induce hadronic interactions, three layers of scintillator strip hodoscopes for triggering and trajectory reconstruction, and a Bismuth Germanate (BGO) crystal calorimeter (18 radiation lengths) to measure particle energies. ATIC has had two successful Long Duration Balloon (LDB) flights from McMurdo, Antarctica: one from 12/28/00 to 01/13/01 and the other from 12/29/02 to 01/18/03. We present the energy spectra of protons and helium extracted from the first flight, over the energy range from 100 GeV to 100 TeV, and compare them with the results from other experiments at both the lower and higher energies. ATIC-1 results do not indicate significant differences in spectral shape between protons and helium over the investigated energy range.     

Enhancing the ATIC charge resolution

The Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter (ATIC) experiment is designed to investigate the charge composition and energy spectra of primary cosmic rays over the energy range from about 10¹¹ to 10¹⁴ eV during Long Duration Balloon (LDB) flights from McMurdo, Antarctica. Currently, analysis from the ATIC-1 test flight and ATIC-2 science flight is underway and preparation for a second science flight is in progress. Charge identification of the incident cosmic ray is accomplished, primarily, by a pixilated Silicon Matrix detector located at the very top of the instrument. While it has been shown that the Silicon Matrix detector provides good charge identification even in the presence of electromagnetic shower backscatter from the calorimeter, the detector only measures the charge once. In this paper, we examine use of the top scintillator hodoscope detector to provide a second measure of the cosmic ray charge and, thus, improve the ATIC charge identification.     

First measurements of cosmic-ray nuclei at high energy with CREAM

The balloon-borne cosmic-ray experiment CREAM-I (Cosmic-Ray Energetics And Mass) recently completed a successful 42-day flight during the 2004–2005 NASA/NSF/NSBF Antarctic expedition. CREAM-I combines an imaging calorimeter with charge detectors and a precision transition radiation detector (TRD). The TRD component of CREAM-I is targeted at measuring the energy of cosmic-ray particles with charges greater than Z ∼ 3. A central science goal of this effort is the determination of the ratio of secondary to primary nuclei at high energy. This measurement is crucial for the reconstruction of the propagation history of cosmic rays, and consequently for the determination of their source spectra. First scientific results from this instrument are presented.     

Measurement of cosmic ray elemental composition from the CAKE balloon experiment

CAKE (Cosmic Abundances below Knee Energies) was a prototype balloon experiment for the determination of the charge spectra and abundances of the primary cosmic rays (CR) with Z > 10. It was a passive instrument made of layers of CR39® and Lexan®/Makrofol® nuclear track detectors; it had a geometric acceptance of ∼0.7 m² sr for Fe nuclei. Here, the scanning and analysis strategies, the algorithms used for the off-line filtering and for the tracking in automated mode of the primary cosmic rays are presented, together with the resulting CR charge distribution and their abundances.     

Preliminary results from the second flight of CREAM

Launched from McMurdo (Antarctica) in December 2005, the balloon experiment CREAM (cosmic ray energetics and mass) collected about 15 million triggers during its second flight of 28 days. Redundant charge identification, by two pixelated silicon arrays and a time resolved pulse shaping technique from a scintillator system, allowed a clear signature of the primary nuclei. The energy was measured with a tungsten/SciFi calorimeter preceded by a graphite target. Preliminary results from the analysis of the data of the second flight are presented.     

Cosmic-ray electron spectrum above 100 GeV from PPB-BETS experiment in Antarctica

Cosmic-ray electrons have been observed in the energy region from 10 GeV to 1 TeV with the PPB-BETS by a long duration balloon flight using a Polar Patrol Balloon (PPB) in Antarctica. The observation was carried out for 13 days at an average altitude of 35 km in January 2004. The PPB-BETS detector is an imaging calorimeter composed of scintillating-fiber belts and plastic scintillators inserted between lead plates. In the study of cosmic-ray electrons, there have been some suggestions that high-energy electrons above 100 GeV are a powerful probe to identify nearby cosmic-ray sources and search for particle dark matter. In this paper, we present the energy spectrum of cosmic-ray electrons in the energy range from 100 GeV to 1 TeV at the top of atmosphere, and compare our spectrum with the results from other experiments.     

Time variations of cosmic-ray helium isotopes with BESS-Polar I

The Balloon-borne Experiment with a Superconducting Spectrometer (BESS) is configured with a solenoidal superconducting magnet and a suite of precision particle detectors, including time-of-flight hodoscopes based on plastic scintillators, a silica-aerogel Cherenkov detector, and a high resolution tracking system with a central jet-type drift chamber. The charges of incident particles are determined from energy losses in the scintillators. Their magnetic rigidities (momentum/charge) are measured by reconstructing each particle trajectory in the magnetic field, and their velocities are obtained by using the time-of-flight system. Together, these measurements can accurately identify helium isotopes among the incoming cosmic-ray helium nuclei up to energies in the GeV per nucleon region. The BESS-Polar I instrument flew for 8.5 days over Antarctica from December 13th to December 21st, 2004. Its long-duration flight and large geometric acceptance allow the time variations of isotopic fluxes to be studied for the first time. The time variations of helium isotope fluxes are presented here for rigidities from 1.2 to 2.5 GV and results are compared to previously reported proton data and neutron monitor data.     

A challenge to the highest balloon altitude

Development of a balloon to fly at higher altitudes is one of the most attractive challenges for scientific balloon technologies. After reaching the highest balloon altitude of 53.0 km using the 3.4 μm film in 2002, a thinner balloon film with a thickness of 2.8 μm was developed. A 5000 m³ balloon made with this film was launched successfully in 2004. However, three 60,000 m³ balloons with the same film launched in 2005, 2006, and 2007, failed during ascent. The mechanical properties of the 2.8 μm film were investigated intensively to look for degradation of the ultimate strength and its elongation as compared to the other thicker balloon films. The requirement of the balloon film was also studied using an empirical and a physical model assuming an axis-symmetrical balloon shape and the static pressure. It was found that the film was strong enough. A stress due to the dynamic pressure by the wind shear is considered as the possible reason for the unsuccessful flights. A 80,000 m³ balloon with cap films covering 9 m from the balloon top will be launch in 2011 to test the appropriateness of this reinforcement.     

Space qualification tests of the PAMELA instrument

PAMELA is a satellite-borne experiment which will measure the antiparticle component of cosmic rays over an extended energy range and with unprecedented accuracy. The apparatus consists of a permanent magnetic spectrometer equipped with a double-sided silicon microstrip tracking system and surrounded by a scintillator anticoincidence system. A silicon–tungsten imaging calorimeter, complemented by a scintillator shower tail catcher, and a transition radiation detector perform the particle identification task. Fast scintillators are used for Time-of-Flight measurements and to provide the primary trigger. A neutron detector is finally provided to extend the range of particle measurements to the TeV region.PAMELA will fly on-board of the Resurs-DK1 satellite, which will be put into a semi-polar orbit in 2005 by a Soyuz rocket. We give a brief review of the scientific issues of the mission and report about the status of the experiment few months before the launch.     

Cosmic ray detection on the Foton-M2 satellite by a track etch detector stack

In the frame of the European Space Agency (ESA) project called “Biology and Physics in Space”, the returning satellite, Foton-M2, carried an open-to-space exposure platform outside of the satellite body, called as BIOPAN-5, loaded with exo-biological experiments and facilities for radiation dosimetry (RADO). One of the RADO experiments was dedicated to the detection of the primary galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and secondary neutrons by a track etch detector stack. The daily absorbed dose (D) and dose equivalent (H) were calculated from the experimental LET spectra (LET > 10 keV/μm). Under a shielding of ∼2.8 g/cm² the averaged H was found to be 658 ± 8 μSv/d, with a quality factor (Q) of 6.2 ± 1.2. The LET spectra showed a local peak at ∼105 keV/μm suggesting that the majority of tracks were created by trapped protons as it has been predicted by calculations. The low LET dose of the cosmic radiation was determined by 4 TLD stacks, and the total dose was found to be 795 ± 14 μSv/d.     

Characteristics and performance of thin LaBr3(Ce) crystal for hard X-ray astronomy

We have developed a new detector using thin lanthanum bromide crystal (32 × 3 mm) for use in X-ray astronomy. The instrument was launched in high altitude balloon flight on two different occasions, December 21, 2007, which reached a ceiling altitude of 4.3 mbs and April 25, 2008 reaching a ceiling altitude 2.8 mbs. The observed background counting rate at the ceiling altitude of 4 mbs was ∼4 × 10⁻³ ct cm⁻² s⁻¹ keV⁻¹ sr⁻¹. This paper describes the details of the experiment, the detector characteristics, and the background behaviour at the ceiling altitude.     

Technology development for a long duration,mid-cloud level Venus balloon

This paper describes the results of ongoing technology development activities for a Venus spherical superpressure balloon capable of flying for long durations (30 days) in the middle cloud layer at an altitude of 55.5 km. Data is presented from a successful aerial deployment and inflation flight experiment on a 5.5 m diameter prototype balloon conducted at a 2.5 km altitude above the Earth. Although the balloon in that test was not released for free flight, all other steps in the deployment and inflation process were successfully executed. Experimental and computational results are also presented from an investigation of the stress concentration phenomenon at the junction of the metal end fitting and fabric end cap of the prototype Venus balloon. Good agreement was found between the simulation and experimental results and a stress concentration factor of 1.55 determined for this end cap design compared to the expectations of thin membrane theory. Finally, results are presented for a new, second-generation Venus balloon material utilizing Aclar™ film instead of Teflon. Optical property and sulfuric acid tolerance data are presented for this material based on laboratory testing of samples.     

An analytical model for the prediction of a micro-dosimeter response function

A rapid analytical procedure for the prediction of a micro-dosimeter response function in low Earth orbit (LEO), correlated with the Space Transportation System (STS, shuttle) Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter (TEPC) measurements is presented. The analytical model takes into consideration the energy loss straggling and chord length distribution of the detector, and is capable of predicting energy deposition fluctuations in a cylindrical micro-volume of arbitrary aspect ratio (height/diameter) by incoming ions through both direct and indirect (δ ray) events. At any designated (ray traced) target point within the vehicle, the model accepts the differential flux spectrum of Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) and/or trapped protons at LEO as input. On a desktop PC, the response function of TEPC for each ion in the GCR/trapped field is computed at the average rate of 30 s/ion. The ionizing radiation environment at LEO is represented by O’Neill’s GCR model (2004), covering charged particles in the 1 ? Z ? 28 range. O’Neill’s free space GCR model is coupled with the Langley Research Center (LaRC) angular dependent geomagnetic cutoff model to compute the transmission coefficient in LEO. The trapped proton environment is represented by a LaRC developed time dependent procedure which couples the AP8MIN/AP8MAX, Deep River Neutron Monitor (DRNM) and F10.7 solar radio frequency measurements. The albedo neutron environment is represented by the extrapolation of the Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation (AIR) measurements. The charged particle transport calculations correlated with STS 51 and 114 flights are accomplished by using the most recent version (2005) of the LaRC deterministic High charge (Z) and Energy TRaNsport (HZETRN) code. We present the correlations between the TEPC model predictions (response function) and TEPC measured differential/integral spectra in the lineal energy (y) domain for both GCR and trapped protons, with the conclusion that the model correctly accounts for the increase in flux at low y values where energetic ions are the primary contributor. We further discuss that, even with the incorporation of angular dependency in the cutoffs, comparison of the GCR differential/integral flux between STS 51 and 114 TEPC measured data and current calculations indicates that there still exists an underestimation by the simulations at low to mid range y values. This underestimation is partly related the exclusion of the secondary pion particle production from the current version of HZETRN.     

Fluxes and nuclear abundances of cosmic rays inside the magnetosphere using a transmission function approach

At 1 AU and outside the Earth’s magnetosphere, the relative abundances to protons for He (He/p), C (C/p) and Fe (Fe/p) nuclei were calculated using the observation data of AMS-01 (for p and He) and HEAO-3 (for C and Fe) above 0.8 GeV/nucleon. In addition, the transmission function (TF) for the GCR propagation inside the magnetosphere was evaluated using the IGRF and T96 (introduced by Tsyganenko and Stern) models to obtain permitted and forbidden trajectories inside the magnetosphere. The TF allowed one to derive the primary He-nuclei fluxes in the same geomagnetic regions of AMS-01 observations. These fluxes were found in good agreement with the observation data. Furthermore inside the magnetosphere in addition to the flux of helium, it allowed one to obtain those of the primary p, C, and Fe nuclei and the relative abundances of He, C and Fe nuclei to protons from the same observation data of AMS-01 and HEAO-3 above ≈0.8 GeV/nucleon. Up to a geomagnetic latitude of ≈45.84°, the relative isotopic abundances were found to depend on the mass number I_isot and, on average, range from a factor ≈2.31 up to ≈3.35 larger than those outside the magnetosphere at 1 AU. Thus, the magnetospheric isotopic/nuclear relative abundances differ from those inside the solar cavity and those in the interstellar space. The usage of the TF approach can allow one to determine the nuclear abundances in the magnetosphere at any geomagnetic latitude and, thus, any orbit, provided that the CR spectra are determined at 1 AU.     

Simultaneous observations of Pc 1 micropulsation activity and stratospheric electrodynamic perturbations on 27 January 2003

The 2nd Polar Patrol Balloon campaign (2nd-PPB) was carried out at Syowa Station in Antarctica during 2002–2003. Identical stratospheric balloon payloads were launched as close together in time as allowed by weather conditions to constitute a cluster of balloons during their flights. A very pronounced negative ion conductivity enhancement was observed at 32 km in the stratosphere below the auroral zone on 27 January 2003 from 1500 to 2200 UT. During this event, the conductivity doubled for an interval of about 7 h. This perturbation was associated with an extensive Pc 1 or Pi 1 wave event that was observed by several Antarctic ground stations, balloon PPB 10, and the Polar spacecraft. No appreciable X-ray precipitation was observed in association with this event, which would point to >60 Mev proton precipitation as a possible magnetosphere–stratosphere coupling mechanism responsible for the conductivity enhancement. Such precipitation is consistent with the wave data. During the latter half of the event, E_z was briefly positive. There was a tropospheric Southern Ocean storm system underneath the balloon during this interval. If the event was associated with this storm system and not energetic proton precipitation, the observations imply an electrified Southern Ocean storm and major perturbations in stratospheric conductivity driven by a tropospheric disturbance. This event represents a poorly understood source for global circuit current. Precipitating energetic proton data from Akebono and NOAA POES spacecraft show significant >16 MeV precipitation was occurring at the location of PPB 8 but not PPB 10, suggesting that proton precipitation was, in fact, the responsible coupling mechanism.     

Second generation prototype design and testing for a high altitude Venus balloon

This paper describes the development of a second generation prototype balloon intended for flight in the upper atmosphere of Venus. The design of this new prototype incorporates lessons learned from the construction and testing of the first generation prototype, including finite element analyses of the balloon stresses and deformations, measured leak performance after handling and packaging, permeability and optical property measurements on material samples, and sulfuric acid testing. An improved design for the second generation prototype was formulated based on these results, although the spherical shape and 5.5 m diameter size were retained. The resulting balloon has a volume of 87 m³ and is capable of carrying a 45 kg payload at a 55 km altitude at Venus. The design and fabrication of the new prototype is described, along with test data for inflation and leakage performance.     

The high precision gamma-ray spectrometer for lunar polar orbiter SELENE

The high precision gamma-ray spectrometer (GRS) is scheduled to be launched on the lunar polar orbiter of the SELENE mission in 2007. The GRS consists of a large Ge crystal as a main detector and massive bismuth germanate crystals as an anticoincidence detector. A Stirling cryocooler was adopted in cooling the Ge detector. The flight model of SELENE GRS has been completed and an energy resolution of 3.0 keV (FWHM) at 1.332 MeV has been achieved. The spectrometer aims to observe nuclear line gamma rays emitted from the lunar surface in a wide energy range from 100 keV to 12 MeV for one year and more to obtain chemical composition on the entire lunar surface. The gamma-ray data enable us to study lunar geoscience problems including crust and mantle composition, and volatile reservoirs at polar regions.     

The ground-based large-area wide-angle γ-ray and cosmic-ray experiment HiSCORE

The question of the origin of cosmic rays and other questions of astroparticle and particle physics can be addressed with indirect air-shower observations above 10 TeV primary energy. We propose to explore the cosmic ray and γ-ray sky (accelerator sky) in the energy range from 10 TeV to 1 EeV with the new ground-based large-area wide angle (ΔΩ ∼ 0.85 sterad) air-shower detector HiSCORE (Hundred^∗i Square-km Cosmic ORigin Explorer). The HiSCORE detector is based on non-imaging air-shower Cherenkov light-front sampling using an array of light-collecting stations. A full detector simulation and basic reconstruction algorithms have been used to assess the performance of HiSCORE. First prototype studies for different hardware components of the detector array have been carried out. The resulting sensitivity of HiSCORE to γ-rays will be comparable to CTA at 50 TeV and will extend the sensitive energy range for γ-rays up to the PeV regime. HiSCORE will also be sensitive to charged cosmic rays between 100 TeV and 1 EeV.