Solar cycles: A tutorial

The Sun is the nearest stellar and astrophysical laboratory, available for detailed studies in several fields of physics and astronomy. It is a sphere of hot gas with a complex and highly variable magnetic field which plays a very important role. The Sun shows an unprecedented wealth of phenomena that can be studied extensively and to the greatest detail, in a way we will never be in a position to study in other stars. Humans have studied the Sun for millennia and after the discovery of the telescope they realized that the Sun varies with time, i.e., solar activity is highly variable, in tune scales of millennia to seconds. The study of these variabilities helps us to understand how the Sun works and how it affects the interplanetary medium, Earth and the other planets. Solar power varies substantially and greatly affects the Earth and humans. Solar activity has several important periodicities, and quasi-periodicities. Knowledge of these periodicities helps us to forecast, to an extent, solar events that affect our planet. The most prominent periodicity of solar activity is the one of 11 years. The actual period is in fact 22 years because the magnetic field polarity of the Sun has to be taken into account. The Sun can be considered as a non-linear RLC electric circuit with a period of 22 years. The RLC equivalent circuit of the Sun is a van der Pol oscillator and such a model can explain many solar phenomena, including the variability of solar energy with time. Other quasi-periodicities such as the ones of 154 days, the 1.3, 1.7 to 2 years, etc., some of which might be harmonics of the 22 year cycle are also present in solar activity, and their study is very interesting and important since they affect the Earth and human activities. The period of 27 days related to solar rotation plays also a very important role in geophysical phenomena. It is noticeable that almost all periodicities are highly variable with time as wavelet analysis reveals. It is very important for humans to be in a position to forecast solar activity during the next hour, day, year, decade and century, because solar phenomena affect life on Earth and such predictions will help politicians and policy makers to better serve their countries and our planet.     

A model of foreground emission in UV using GALEX deep observations

Foreground emission, mainly airglow and zodiacal light, is a significant contributor in an ultraviolet observation especially from low earth orbit. Its careful estimation and removal are tedious yet unavoidable processes in the study of diffuse UV radiation and by extension interstellar dust studies. Our analysis of deep GALEX observations show that airglow is not only a function of Sun angle but also a strong function of Solar activity at the time of observation. We present here an empirical model of airglow emission, derived from GALEX deep observations, as a function of 10.7 cm Solar flux and Sun angle. We obtained the model by training machine learning models on the data using a variant of the regression algorithm that is both resilient toward outlier data and sensitive to the complexities of the provided data. Our model predictions across various observations show no loss in generalization as well as good agreement with the observed values. We find that the total airglow in an observation is the sum of a baseline part (AG_c) that depends on the Solar flux and Sun angle, and a variable part (AG_v) that depends on the Sun angle and the time of observation with respect to local midnight. We also find that the total airglow can vary between 85 – 390 photon units in FUV and 80 – 465 photon units in NUV.     

Seismological studies of the sun and other stars

Observations of a large number of different oscillation frequencies in the Sun provide an opportunity for detailed testing of the theory of stellar structure and evolution. At present highly significant discrepancies remain between observed and computed frequencies, and so our models of the solar interior have to be modified. With further improvements in the observations it might become possible to make a direct empirical determination of the density structure throughout the Sun.Similar oscillations have so far not been detected in other stars, but attempts to do so are under way. Theoretical estimates indicate that amplitudes somewhat greater than for the Sun might be expected for early F stars on the main sequence, and that the amplitude increases rapidly with decreasing gravity. Observation of such oscillations would enable investigations of the structure of these stars, and would in addition provide valuable information about the excitation mechanism of the oscillations.     

地面姿态模拟光源控制系统研究

太阳敏感器和红外地球敏感器是卫星升空以后进行姿态控制的两个重要部件, 地面姿态模拟光源作为地面测试设备, 用来在地面上给这两个部件提供太阳模 拟信号和红外地球模拟信号. 本文设计了一套由4条光缝组成的模拟卫星自旋转 动的小型太阳模拟光源及针对地球同步轨道高度模拟15.6°张角的南 (北)红外两个地球模拟光源, 并为南北地球敏感器太阳保护探头提供了模拟 的太阳保护光源. 根据地面姿态模拟光源控制系统的组成和总体结构, 通 过分析计算给出各模拟光源之间严格的时序关系, 并对各模拟光源之间的时序 进行了实验测试, 结果表明模拟转速锁相误差不大于1ms, 各模拟光源时序 之间的角度误差小于0.5°.      

Low-frequency electric field and density fluctuation measurements on Solar Orbiter

Solar Orbiter will orbit the Sun down to a distance of 0.22 AU allowing detailed in situ studies of important but unexplored regions of the solar wind in combination with coordinated remote sensing of the Sun. In-situ measurements require high quality measurements of particle distributions and electric and magnetic fields. We show that such important scientific topics as the identification of coronal heating remnants, solar wind turbulence, magnetic reconnection and shock formation within coronal mass ejections all require electric field and plasma density measurements in the frequency range from DC up to about 100 Hz. We discuss how such measurements can be achieved using the double-probe technique. We sketch a few possible antenna design solutions.     

Configuration space and stability analysis of solar sail near-vertical earth-trailing orbits

Regions outside the reach of traditional propulsion systems or the ones that require significant propellant, may be reached by harnessing the solar radiation pressure and leveraging coupled dynamics to maneuver a sail-based spacecraft. Earth-trailing orbits have recently been investigated for getting a unique perspective of the Sun while maintaining the spacecraft in close proximity to Earth. Vertical orbits trailing the Earth exhibit the additional capability to view the Sun from above and below the ecliptic plane. In this work, families of sail-based orbits are explored for varying Earth-trailing angles and Z amplitudes in the Sun-Earth circular restricted three-body problem. Optimization is carried out to ensure that the non-traditional vertical orbits exhibit a constant pitch angle control history, as well as symmetry across the X-Y plane. The stability of the resulting orbit families is assessed using an extension of Flouquet theory to Differential Algebraic Equations. Results indicate that sail-based Earth-trailing vertical orbits can be more stable than traditional sub-L₁ sail-based vertical orbits.     

Quiet sun XUV and EUV spectroscopy

The two XUV–EUV spectrometers on SOHO have collected a large amount of data in the 6000–10⁶ K solar plasma temperature range. These data have allowed us to greatly enhance our knowledge of the processes acting in the solar atmosphere, from the chromosphere to the corona. Some results on the quiet Sun structure (network, quiet Sun versus coronal hole), on the dynamics (velocities, waves, transient events), and the main characteristics of the quiet Sun atmosphere are presented and discussed.     

Solar orbiter, a high-resolution mission to the sun and inner heliosphere

The scientific rationale of the Solar Orbiter is to provide, at high spatial (35 km pixel size) and temporal resolution, observations of the solar atmosphere and unexplored inner heliosphere. Novel observations will be made in the almost heliosynchronous segments of the orbits at heliocentric distances near 45 R and out of the ecliptic plane at the highest heliographic latitudes of 30° – 38°. The Solar Orbiter will achieve its wide-ranging aims with a suite of sophisticated instruments through an innovative design of the orbit. The first near-Sun interplanetary measurements together with concurrent remote observations of the Sun will permit us to determine and understand, through correlative studies, the characteristics of the solar wind and energetic particles in close linkage with the plasma and radiation conditions in their source regions on the Sun. Over extended periods the Solar Orbiter will deliver the first images of the polar regions and the side of the Sun invisible from the Earth.     

Is the Earth’s orbital motion linked to the spin rotation of the Sun?

Time variations of the magnetic field of the Sun, seen as a star (the data 1968–2018, with more than 27 thousand daily measurements of the solar mean magnetic field), allowed to specify the rotation period of the gravitating solar mass: 27.027(6)?days, synodic. This indicates a presumably unknown physical connection between motions of the Sun and the Earth: in the course of a year our star accomplishes nearly 27 half-revolutions, while the planet itself performs an identical number of its spinnings during one complete axial revolution of the Sun. True origin of this strange Sun–Earth resonance is unknown, but it is supposed the phenomenon might be caused by slight coherent perturbations of gravity within the solar system.     

面向编队飞行的天文多普勒差分/脉冲星组合导航

太阳光较强,太阳多普勒差分导航测量精度高,但难以提供多方位速度信息。恒星星光弱,恒星多普勒差分导航测量精度低,但可提供多方位速度信息。为了提高航天器的天文自主导航能力,提出一种面向编队飞行的天文多普勒差分/脉冲星组合导航方法。利用3颗及以上的脉冲星导航是完全可观测的,但滤波周期较长,难以获得连续的导航信息。3种导航方法具有互补性,可以进行组合导航。利用扩展卡尔曼滤波器作为导航滤波器来融合天文多普勒差分和脉冲到达时间,并为编队飞行提供绝对和相对导航信息。仿真结果表明,该组合导航方法能为编队飞行提供高精度的绝对和相对导航信息。     

Heliospheric implications of structure in the interstellar medium

Equilibrium models of diffuse interstellar material (ISM) near the Sun show a range of cloud densities, ionization, and temperatures which are consistent with data, although the local ISM must be inhomogeneous over ∼2 pc scales. The ISM close to the Sun has properties that are consistent with the sheetlike warm neutral (and partially ionized) gas detected in the Arecibo Millennium Survey. Local interstellar magnetic fields are poorly understood, but data showing weak polarization for nearby stars indicate dust may be trapped in fields or currents in the heliosheath nose region. Implications of this dust capture are widespread, and may impact the interpretation of the cosmic microwave background data. Observations of interstellar H⁰ inside of the solar system between 1975 and 2000 do not suggest any variation in the properties or structure of local interstellar H⁰ over distance scales of ∼750 AU to within the uncertainties.     

A flash on the moon caused by orbital debris

Sun glinting from a satellite in earth orbit is suggested as the probable cause of a reported lunar flash observed on May 23, 1985. This conflicts with the suggestion that a lunar ionization phenomenon is the source and points out concern that flashes from space debris must always be considered in the investigation of sky — flash discoveries.     

火星探测巡航段天文自主导航方法研究

对于火星探测巡航段的自主导航问题,提出了一种基于太阳及行星观测的自主导航方法。在巡航段初期及后期,根据探测器在太阳系中的位置关系,分别选择太阳、地球及太阳、火星作为观测目标,采用星载太阳敏感器和光学相机测量导航天体实现矢量,建立观测方程。利用非线性扩展卡尔曼滤波,分别建立两种观测方案对应的导航算法。仿真结果表明巡航段导航定位精度优于100 km,定速精度1 m/s。该方法实现简单,系统资源要求不高,对未来火星探测具有一定的工程参考价值。     

太阳模拟器两轴回转控制系统研究

太阳敏感器是卫星控制系统中的一个重要部件,装星之前需要通过地面试验验证其各项功能及技术指标.本文针对太阳敏感器的地面测试设备——太阳模拟器两轴回转控制系统展开研究.该系统采用伺服电机与绝对式光电编码器相结合的方案,包括偏航与俯仰两个回转控制机构,主要用于改变太阳模拟器光轴的方向.给出了回转控制系统的组成和工作原理,并对影响系统精度的因素进行了分析.实验表明,回转系统的角度控制精度优于0.03°,满足该地面测试设备设计时提出的0.04°精度指标.      

天气尺度到气候尺度太阳风变速对中高纬大气环流的影响

通过对冬季太阳风短时(天气尺度)降速与北大西洋涛动和北极涛动等北半球中高纬度环流指数的时序重叠分析,结合对1963年以来48个冬季太阳风平均速度与北极涛动等指数的相关分析发现,从短时太阳风降速到向亚极光带沉降的辐射带高能电子通量显著下降,北极涛动也有迅速的响应,这预示着从太阳风到大气环流存在天气尺度的短时关系链,在这一时间尺度现有理论中仅有“空间粒子-大气电-云微物理”联系机制能较好地解释;太阳风速度与北极涛动的正相关信号在气候尺度上也有显著体现,太阳风可能通过高能电子沉降与北半球冬季中高纬度环流相联系,这表明太阳风通过大气电-云微物理过程驱动的过程是太阳活动影响气候变化的不可忽视的途径;开展太阳风起源、空间环境与大气(环流、电场)和地磁系统的联合观测及数值模拟是揭示日地天气与气候联系的重要研究内容之一.      

Solar sail near the Sun: Point-like and extended models of radiation source

Some modifications of solar sail radiation pressure forces on a plate and on a sphere for use in the numerical simulation of ‘local-optimal’ (or ‘instantaneously optimal’) trajectories of a spacecraft with a solar sail are suggested. The force model development is chronologically reviewed, including its connection with solar sail surface reflective and thermal properties. The sail surface is considered as partly absorbing, partly reflective (specular and diffuse), partly transparent. Thermal balance is specified because the spacecraft moves from circular Earth orbit to near-Sun regions and thermal limitations on the sail film are taken into account. A spherical sail-balloon can be used in near-Sun regions for scientific research beginning with the solar-synchronous orbit and moving outward from the Sun. The Sun is considered not only as a point-like source of radiation but also as an extended source of radiation which is assumed to be consequently as a point-like source of radiation, a uniformly bright flat solar disc and uniformly bright solar sphere.     

X射线脉冲星自主导航的卫星运动方程

基于X射线脉冲星的卫星自主导航模型中, 无论从理论上还是从测量精度方面考虑, 光子到达时间测量方程(观测方程)和卫星运动方程(状态方程)应在同一参考系中讨论. 在DSX体系中太阳系质心系是惯性系, 可以使用现行时间测量方程, 但卫星摄动加速度中除了地球多极矩、日月引力摄动和太阳光压三项外, 还应考虑相对论修正项, 计算表明该修正项导致卫星位置误差在10m量级. 而地心系是非惯性系, 在此系中卫星运动方程中的相对论效应导致卫星误差在10 cm量级, 因而可以忽略, 但要将BCRS的时间测量方程转换到GCRS中. 在此基础上建立的导航模型较为精确和完整.      

Solar neutron events as a tool to study particle acceleration at the Sun

The Sun provides unique opportunities to study particle acceleration mechanisms using data from detectors placed on the Earth’s surface and on board spacecrafts. Particles may gain high energies by several physical mechanisms. Differentiating between these possibilities is a fundamental problem of cosmic ray physics. Energetic neutrons provide us with information that keeps the signatures of the acceleration site. A summary of some representative solar neutron events observed on the Earth’s surface, including associated X and γ-ray observations from spacecrafts is presented. We discuss evidence of acceleration of particles by the Sun to energies up to several tens of GeV. In addition, a recent solar neutron event that occurred on September 7th 2005 and detected by several observatories at Earth is analyzed in detail.     

Orientations of LASCO Halo CMEs and their connection to the flux rope structure of interplanetary CMEs

Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) observed near the Sun via LASCO coronographic imaging are the most important solar drivers of geomagnetic storms. ICMEs, their interplanetary, near-Earth counterparts, can be detected in situ, for example, by the Wind and ACE spacecraft. An ICME usually exhibits a complex structure that very often includes a magnetic cloud (MC). They can be commonly modelled as magnetic flux ropes and there is observational evidence to expect that the orientation of a halo CME elongation corresponds to the orientation of the flux rope. In this study, we compare orientations of elongated CME halos and the corresponding MCs, measured by Wind and ACE spacecraft. We characterize the MC structures by using the Grad–Shafranov reconstruction technique and three MC fitting methods to obtain their axis directions. The CME tilt angles and MC fitted axis angles were compared without taking into account handedness of the underlying flux rope field and the polarity of its axial field. We report that for about 64% of CME–MC events, we found a good correspondence between the orientation angles implying that for the majority of interplanetary ejecta their orientations do not change significantly (less than 45 deg rotation) while travelling from the Sun to the near-Earth environment.     

Probing solar and stellar interior dynamics and dynamo

Solar and stellar activity is a result of complex interaction between magnetic field, turbulent convection and differential rotation in a star’s interior. Magnetic field is believed to be generated by a dynamo process in the convection zone. It emerges on the surface forming sunspots and starspots. Localization of the magnetic spots and their evolution with the activity cycle is determined by large-scale interior flows. Thus, the internal dynamics of the Sun and other stars hold the key to understanding the dynamo mechanism and activity cycles. Recently, significant progress has been made for modeling magnetohydrodynamics of the stellar interiors and probing the internal rotation and large-scale dynamics of the Sun by helioseismology. Also, asteroseismology is beginning to probe interiors of distant stars. I review key achievements and challenges in our quest to understand the basic mechanisms of solar and stellar activity.