共查询到20条相似文献,搜索用时 31 毫秒
1.
V. Wakelam I. W. M. Smith E. Herbst J. Troe W. Geppert H. Linnartz K. Öberg E. Roueff M. Agúndez P. Pernot H. M. Cuppen J. C. Loison D. Talbi 《Space Science Reviews》2010,156(1-4):13-72
We survey the current situation regarding chemical modelling of the synthesis of molecules in the interstellar medium. The present state of knowledge concerning the rate coefficients and their uncertainties for the major gas-phase processes—ion-neutral reactions, neutral-neutral reactions, radiative association, and dissociative recombination—is reviewed. Emphasis is placed on those key reactions that have been identified, by sensitivity analyses, as ‘crucial’ in determining the predicted abundances of the species observed in the interstellar medium. These sensitivity analyses have been carried out for gas-phase models of three representative, molecule-rich, astronomical sources: the cold dense molecular clouds TMC-1 and L134N, and the expanding circumstellar envelope IRC +10216. Our review has led to the proposal of new values and uncertainties for the rate coefficients of many of the key reactions. The impact of these new data on the predicted abundances in TMC-1 and L134N is reported. Interstellar dust particles also influence the observed abundances of molecules in the interstellar medium. Their role is included in gas-grain, as distinct from gas-phase only, models. We review the methods for incorporating both accretion onto, and reactions on, the surfaces of grains in such models, as well as describing some recent experimental efforts to simulate and examine relevant processes in the laboratory. These efforts include experiments on the surface-catalyzed recombination of hydrogen atoms, on chemical processing on and in the ices that are known to exist on the surface of interstellar grains, and on desorption processes, which may enable species formed on grains to return to the gas-phase. 相似文献
2.
Chemical and physical processes in the outer solar nebula are reviewed. It is argued that the outer nebula was a chemically
active environment with UV photochemistry and ion-molecule chemistry in its low density regions and grain-catalyzed chemistry
in Jovian protoplanetary subnebulae. Presolar material was altered to greater or lesser extent by these spatially and temporally
variable processes, which mimic many features of interstellar chemistry. Experiments, models, and observations are recommended
to address the questions of presolar versus nebular dominance in the outer solar nebula and of how to distinguish interstellar
and nebular sources of cometary volatiles.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
3.
Spectroscopy Between the Stars 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
The emission and absorption spectra of interstellar molecules are reviewed with special consideration of recent observational
and technical advances in the shorter submillimeter wave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Single-dish observations
have contributed in the past probably most of the information about the structure of interstellar molecular clouds.
At present about 120 interstellar molecules have been identified in interstellar clouds and circumstellar envelopes, evidence
of a rich and diversified chemistry. CO, the most abundant interstellar molecule and other diatomic molecules and radicals
are found throughout molecular clouds, whereas the more complex molecules are found in high-density cores, which are often
the sites of active star formation. These locations represent prime targets for the search for larger molecules, such as glycine.
The ignition of young stars is accompanied by strong heating of the surrounding material by radiation and/or shocks, leading
to photoevaporation of molecules depleted on dust grains driving a "hot core" chemistry, traceable by its rich organic chemistry
and its prevailing high excitation conditions (up to about 2000 cm-1).
However, in the list of detected interstellar molecules many simple hydrides are still missing, e.g. SH, PH, PH2, etc., which constitute the building blocks for larger molecules. With the technological opening of the terahertz region
(ν ∼1 THz corresponds to λ ∼0.3 mm) to both laboratory and interstellar spectroscopy, great scientific advances are to be
expected. Amongst these will be the direct detection of the lowest rotational transitions of the light hydrides, the low energy
bending vibrations of larger (linear) molecules, and possibly the ring-puckering motion of larger ring molecules such as the
polycyclic (multiring) aromatic hydrocarbons.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
4.
Ulysses measurements yield reliable in-situdetection of large dust particles which stem from the interstellar medium (ISM) and which
are not observed in interstellar extinction data. Both current models of large grains in the ISM: core-mantle grains as well
as composite grains, are in agreement with dust properties implied by the Ulysses results. However, the size of particles detected by Ulysses still exceeds the size of the large grains that are predicted for the ISM.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
5.
Cosmic-ray acceleration and transport is considered from the point of view of application to diffuse galactic -ray sources. As an introduction we review several source models, in particular supernovae exploding inside or near large interstellar clouds. The complex problem of cosmic ray transport in random electromagnetic fields is reduced to three cases which should be sufficient for practical purposes. As far as diffusive acceleration is concerned, apart from reviewing the basic physical principles, we point out the relation between shock acceleration and 2nd order Fermi acceleration, and the relative importance of the two processes around interstellar shock waves. For -ray source models the interaction of cosmic rays with dense clouds assumes great importance. Past discussions had been confined to static interactions of clouds with the ambient medium in the sense that no large scale mass motions in the ambient interstellar medium were considered. The well-known result then is that down to some tens of MeV or less, cosmic-ray nucleons should freely penetrate molecular clouds of typical masses and sizes. The self-exclusion of very low energy nucleons however may affect electron transport with consequences for the Bremsstrahlung -luminosity of such clouds.In this paper we consider also the dynamical interaction of dense clouds with a surrounding hot interstellar medium. Through cloud evaporation and accretion there exist mass flows in the cloud surroundings. We argue that in the case of (small) cloud evaporation the galactic cosmic rays will be essentially excluded from the clouds. The dynamic effects of cosmic rays on the flow should be minor in this case. For the opposite case of gas accretion onto (large) clouds, cosmic-ray effects on the flow will in general be large, limiting the cosmic-ray compression inside the cloud to dynamic pressure equilibrium. This should have a number of interesting and new consequences for -ray astronomy. A first, qualitative discussion is given in the last section.Proceedings of the XVIII General Assembly of the IAU: Galactic Astrophysics and Gamma-Ray Astronomy, held at Patras, Greece, 19 August 1982. 相似文献
6.
Isotopic fractionation in interstellar clouds can occur by ion-molecule reactions at low temperatures. The major effect is
not kinetic but thermodynamic in origin in that it arises from the difference in rate coefficients between forward and backward
directions in reactions which exchange isotopic atoms. In this article, we concentrate on deuterium fractionation in interstellar
clouds; this effect enhances the relative abundances of deuterated isotopomers to their normal counterparts by up to four
orders of magnitude as compared with the basic D/H elemental abundance ratio. We also discuss the fractionation of 15N and 13C.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
7.
We consider four aspects of interstellar chemistry for comparison with comets: molecular abundances in general, relative abundances
of isomers (specifically, HCN and HNC), ortho/para ratios for molecules, and isotopic fractionation, particularly for the
ratio hydrogen/deuterium. Since the environment in which the solar system formed is not well constrained, we consider both
isolated dark clouds where low mass stars may form and the "hot cores" that are the sites of high mass star formation. Attention
is concentrated on the gas phase, since the grains are considered elsewhere in this volume.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
8.
This paper reviews the chemical processes responsible for fractionating deuterium in interstellar molecules. I show that this
process is intrinsically a low temperature phenomenon and discuss how the degree of enhancement of the deuterium content of
molecules is related to the physical conditions, particularly abundances, in molecular clouds. If significant amounts of abundant
species, such as CO, are frozen out on to interstellar dust grains, the resulting enhancement in H2D+ can result in its abundance being greater than that of H
3
+
at 10K. Transfer of the deuteron from H2D+ can then lead to the efficient formation of multiply deuterated species, such as NHD2 and ND3. Fractionation can also occur in grain surface reactions and some simple models are discussed.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
9.
Until pristine samples can be returned from cometary nuclei, primitive meteorites represent our best source of information
about organic chemistry in the early solar system. However, this material has been affected by secondary processing on asteroidal
parent bodies which probably did not affect the material now present in cometary nuclei. Production of meteoritic organic
matter apparently involved the following sequence of events: Molecule formation by a variety of reaction pathways in dense
interstellar clouds; Condensation of those molecules onto refractory interstellar grains; Irradiation of organic-rich interstellar-grain
mantles producing a range of molecular fragments and free radicals; Inclusion of those interstellar grains into the protosolar
nebula with probable heating of at least some grain mantles during passage through the shock wave bounding the solar accretion
disc; Agglomeration of residual interstellar grains and locally produced nebular condensates into asteroid-sized planetesimals;
Heating of planetesimals by decay of extinct radionuclides; Melting of ice to produce liquid water within asteroidal bodies;
Reaction of interstellar molecules, fragments and radicals with each other and with the aqueous environment, possibly catalysed
by mineral grains; Loss of water and other volatiles to space yielding a partially hydrated lithology containing a complex
suite of organic molecules; Heating of some of this organic matter to generate a kerogen-like complex; Mixing of heated and
unheated material to yield the meteoritic material now observed. Properties of meteoritic organic matter believed to be consistent
with this scenario include: Systematic decrease of abundance with increasing C number in homologous series of characterisable
molecules; Complete structural diversity within homologous series; Predominance of branched-chain isomers; Considerable isotopic
variability among characterisable molecules and within kerogen-like material; Substantial deuterium enrichment in all organic
fractions; Some fractions significantly enriched in nitrogen-15; Modest excesses of L-enantiomers in some racemisation-resistant
molecules but no general enantiomeric preference. Despite much speculation about the possible role of Fischer-Tropsch catalytic
hydrogenation of CO in production of organic molecules in the solar nebula, no convincing evidence for such material has been
found in meteorites. A similarity between some meteoritic organics and those produced by Miller-Urey discharge synthesis may
reflect involvement of common intermediates rather than the operation of electric discharges in the early solar system. Meteoritic
organic matter constitutes a useful, but not exact, guide to what we shall find with in situ analytical and sample-return
missions to cometary nuclei.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
10.
Emmanuel Dartois 《Space Science Reviews》2005,119(1-4):293-310
The instruments on board the Infrared Space Observatory have for the first time allowed a complete low (PHOT, CVF) to medium
resolution (SWS) spectroscopic harvest, from 2.5 to 45 μm, of interstellar dust. Amongst the detected solids present in starless
molecular clouds surrounding recently born stellar and still embedded objects or products of the chemistry in some mass loss
envelopes, the so-called “ice mantles” are of specific interest. They represent an interface between the very refractory carbonaceous
and silicates materials that built the first grains with the rich chemistry taking place in the gas phase. Molecules condense,
react on ices, are subjected to UV and cosmic ray irradiation at low temperatures, participating efficiently to the evolution
toward more complex molecules, being in constant interaction in an ice layer. They also play an important role in the radiative
transfer of molecular clouds and strongly affect the gas phase chemistry. ISO results shed light on many other species than
H2O ice. The detection of these van der Waal's solids is mainly performed in absorption. Each ice feature observed by ISO spectrometer
is an important species, with abundance in the 10−4–10−7 range with respect to H2. Such high abundances represent a substantial reservoir of matter that, once released later on, replenishes the gas phase
and feeds the ladder of molecular complexity. Medium resolution spectroscopy also offers the opportunity to look at individual
line profiles of the ice features, and therefore to progressively reveal the interactions taking place in the mantles.
This article will give a view on selected results to avoid to overlap with the numerous reviews the reader is invited to consult
(e.g. van Dishoeck, in press; Gibb et al., 2004.).
Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States (especially the PI countries:
France, Germany, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom), and with the participation of ISAS and NASA. 相似文献
11.
J. L. Linsky 《Space Science Reviews》2007,130(1-4):367-375
Analysis of UV spectra obtained with the HST, FUSE and other satellites provides a new understanding of the deuterium abundance
in the local region of the galactic disk. The wide range of gas-phase D/H measurements obtained outside of the Local Bubble
can now be explained as due to different amounts of deuterium depletion on carbonaceous grains. The total D/H ratio including
deuterium in the gas and dust phases is at least 23 parts per million of hydrogen, which is providing a challenge to models
of galactic chemical evolution. Analysis of HST and ground-based spectra of many lines of sight to stars within the Local
Bubble have identified interstellar velocity components that are consistent with more than 15 velocity vectors. We have identified
the structures of 15 nearby warm interstellar clouds on the basis of these velocity vectors and common temperatures and depletions.
We estimate the distances and masses of these clouds and compare their locations with cold interstellar clouds. 相似文献
12.
M. A. Allodi R. A. Baragiola G. A. Baratta M. A. Barucci G. A. Blake P. Boduch J. R. Brucato C. Contreras S. H. Cuylle D. Fulvio M. S. Gudipati S. Ioppolo Z. Kaňuchová A. Lignell H. Linnartz M. E. Palumbo U. Raut H. Rothard F. Salama E. V. Savchenko E. Sciamma-O’Brien G. Strazzulla 《Space Science Reviews》2013,180(1-4):101-175
13.
Deuterated molecules are detected both in interstellar translucent clouds and in cold dark clouds, as well as in star forming
regions. We review the recent observational studies of deuterated molecules ranging from the VUV to the millimeter wavelength
range. We outline some sources of uncertainties on the deuterium fractionation and on the subsequent derivation of the elemental
deuterium to hydrogen ratio. Steady state versus time dependent models are discussed and the role of initial conditions is
emphasized.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
14.
We discuss the interstellar magnetic field and its measurement in the different phases of the interstellar medium. The measurement techniques include Faraday rotation, Zeeman splitting, linear polarization from aligned dust grains, and the Chandrasekhar-Fermi method. The phases include the classical ones: molecular clouds, the Cold and Warm Neutral Media, the Warm and Hot Ionized Media. We also include a less well-known phase, the Warm Partially Ionized Medium, which can be surprisingly prominent in Faraday rotation. 相似文献
15.
Alain Abergel Laurent Verstraete Christine Joblin René Laureijs Marc-Antoine Miville-Deschênes 《Space Science Reviews》2005,119(1-4):247-271
Infrared spectroscopy and photometry with ISO covering most of the emission range of the interstellar medium has led to important
progress in the understanding of the physics and chemistry of the gas, the nature and evolution of the dust grains and also
the coupling between the gas and the grains. We review here the ISO results on the cool and low-excitation regions of the
interstellar medium, where T
gas≲ 500 K, n
H∼ 100–105 cm−3 and the electron density is a few 10−4.
JEL codes: D24, L60, 047
Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States (especially the PI countries:
France, Germany, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom), and with the participation of ISAS and NASA. 相似文献
16.
Peter Hoppe 《Space Science Reviews》2008,138(1-4):43-57
Primitive meteorites and interplanetary dust particles contain small quantities of dust grains with highly anomalous isotopic compositions. These grains formed in the winds of evolved stars and in the ejecta of stellar explosions, i.e., they represent a sample of circumstellar grains that can be analyzed with high precision in the laboratory. Such studies have provided a wealth of information on stellar evolution and nucleosynthesis, Galactic chemical evolution, grain growth in stellar environments, interstellar chemistry, and the inventory of stars that contributed dust to the Solar System. Among the identified circumstellar grains in primitive solar system matter are diamond, graphite, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, oxides, and silicates. Circumstellar grains have also been found in cometary matter. To date the available information on circumstellar grains in comets is limited, but extended studies of matter returned by the Stardust mission may help to overcome the existing gaps. 相似文献
17.
The formation of planetary systems is intimately tied to the question of the evolution of the gas and solid material in the
early nebula. Current models of evolution of circumstellar disks are reviewed here with emphasis on the so-called “alpha models”
in which angular momentum is transported outward by turbulent viscosity, parameterized by an dimensionless parameter α. A
simple 1D model of protoplanetary disks that includes gas and embedded particles is used to introduce key questions on planetesimal
formation. This model includes the aerodynamic properties of solid ice and rock grains to calculate their migration and growth.
We show that the evolution of the nebula and migration and growth of its solids proceed on timescales that are generally not
much longer than the timescale necessary to fully form the star-disk system from the molecular cloud. Contrary to a widely
used approach, planet formation therefore can neither be studied in a static nebula nor in a nebula evolving from an arbitrary initial condition. We propose a simple approach to both account for sedimentation
from the molecular cloud onto the disk, disk evolution and migration of solids.
Giant planets have key roles in the history of the forming Solar System: they formed relatively early, when a significant
amount of hydrogen and helium were still present in the nebula, and have a mass that is a sizable fraction of the disk mass
at any given time. Their composition is also of interest because when compared to the solar composition, their enrichment
in elements other than hydrogen and helium is a witness of sorting processes that occured in the protosolar nebula. We review
likely scenarios capable of explaining both the presence of central dense cores in Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune and
their global composition.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
18.
D. H. Wooden 《Space Science Reviews》2008,138(1-4):75-108
Comets are heterogeneous mixtures of interstellar and nebular materials. The degree of mixing of interstellar sources and nebular sources at different nuclear size scales holds the promise of revealing how cometary particles, cometesimals, and cometary nuclei accreted. We can ascribe cometary materials to interstellar and nebular sources and see how comets probe planet-forming process in our protoplanetary disk. Comets and cometary IDPs contain carbonaceous matter that appears to be either similar to poorly-graphitized (amorphous) carbon, a likely ISM source, or highly labile complex organics, with possible ISM or outer disk heritage. The oxygen fugacity of the solar nebula depends on the dynamical interplay between the inward migration of carbon-rich grains and of icy (water-rich) grains. Inside the water dissociation line, OH? reacts with carbon to form CO or CO2, consuming available oxygen and contributing to the canonical low oxygen fugacity. Alternatively, the influx of water vapor and/or oxygen rich dust grains from outer (cooler) disk regions can raise the oxygen fugacity. Low oxygen fugacity of the canonical solar nebula favors the condensation of Mg-rich crystalline silicates and Fe-metal, or the annealing of Fe-Mg amorphous silicates into Mg-rich crystals and Fe-metal via Fe-reduction. High oxygen fugacity nebular conditions favors the condensation of Fe-bearing to Fe-rich crystalline silicates. In the ISM, Fe-Mg amorphous silicates are prevalent, in stark contrast to Mg-rich crystalline silicates that are rare. Hence, cometary Mg-rich crystalline silicates formed in the hot, inner regions of the canonical solar nebula and they are the touchstone for models of the outward radial transport of nebular grains to the comet-forming zone. Stardust samples are dominated by Mg-rich crystalline silicates but also contain abundant Fe-bearing and Fe-rich crystalline silicates that are too large (?0.1 μm) to be annealed Fe-Mg amorphous silicates. By comparison with asteroids, the Stardust Fe-bearing and Fe-rich crystalline silicates suggests partial aqueous alteration in comet nuclei. However, aqueous alteration transforms Fe-rich olivine to phyllosilicates before Mg-rich olivine, and Stardust has Mg-rich and Fe-rich olivine and no phyllosilicates. Hence, we look to a nebular source for the moderately Fe-rich to nearly pure-Fe crystalline silicates. Primitive matrices have Mg-Fe silicates but no phyllosilicates, supporting the idea that Mg-Fe silicates but not phyllosilicates are products of water-rich shocks. Chondrule-formation is a late stage process in our protoplanetary disk. Stardust samples show comet 81P/Wild 2 formed at least as late to incorporate a few chondrules, requiring radial transport of chondrules out to perhaps >20 AU. By similar radial transport mechanisms, collisional fragments of aqueously altered asteroids, in particular achondrites that formed earlier than chondrules, might reach the comet-forming zones. However, Stardust samples do not have phyllosilicates and chondrules are rare. Hence, the nebular refractory grains in comet 81P/Wild 2, as well as other comets, appear to be pre-accretionary with respect to asteroid parent bodies. By discussing nebular pathways for the formation of Fe-rich crystalline silicates, and also phyllosilicates and carbonates, we put forth the view that comets contain both the interstellar ingredients for and the products of nebular transmutation. 相似文献
19.
Pickup ions, created by ionization of slow moving atoms and molecules well inside the heliosphere, provide us with a new tool
to probe remote regions in and beyond the heliosphere and to study injection and acceleration processes in the solar wind.
Comprehensive and continuous measurements of H, He, C, N, O, Ne and other pickup ions, especially with the Solar Wind Ion
Composition Spectrometer (SWICS) on both Ulysses and ACE, have given us a wealth of data that have been used to infer chemical and physical properties of the local interstellar
cloud. With SWICS on Ulysses we discovered a new population of pickup ions, produced from atomic and molecular sources deep inside the heliosphere. The
velocity distributions and composition of these “inner source” pickup ions are distinctly different from those of interstellar
pickup ions, showing effects of strong adiabatic cooling, and a composition resembling that of the solar wind. Strong cooling
indicates that the source of these pickup ions lies close to the Sun. The similarity of composition of inner source heavy
ions to that of the solar wind implies that the dominant production mechanism for these pickup ions involves the absorption
and re-emission of solar wind from interplanetary dust grains. While interstellar pickup ions are the seed population of the
main Anomalous Cosmic Rays (ACRs), inner source pickup ions may be an important source of the rarer ACRs such as C, Mg, Si,
S, and Fe. We present new results and review previous work with an emphasis on characteristics of the local interstellar cloud
and properties of the inner source.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
20.
The interaction of cosmic rays with interstellar clouds may produce some of the observed gamma-ray sources. The use of molecular observations to estimate the cloud masses, which are used to derive cosmic-ray fluxes, is reviewed. Molecular diagnostics of high cosmic-ray ionization rates are discussed, and a detailed application of those diagnostics is summarised and presented as evidence that second-order Fermi acceleration is important in old supernova remnants and can produce cosmic rays of too low energy to induce gamma-ray emission.Proceedings of the XVIII General Assembly of the IAU: Galactic Astrophysics and Gamma-Ray Astronomy, held at Patras, Greece, 19 August 1982.Royal Society Jaffé Donation Fellow. 相似文献