Design of optimal earth pole-sitter transfers using low-thrust propulsion

Recent studies have shown the feasibility of an Earth pole-sitter mission using low-thrust propulsion. This mission concept involves a spacecraft following the Earth's polar axis to have a continuous, hemispherical view of one of the Earth's poles. Such a view will enhance future Earth observation and telecommunications for high latitude and polar regions. To assess the accessibility of the pole-sitter orbit, this paper investigates optimum Earth pole-sitter transfers employing low-thrust propulsion. A launch from low Earth orbit (LEO) by a Soyuz Fregat upper stage is assumed after which solar electric propulsion is used to transfer the spacecraft to the pole-sitter orbit. The objective is to minimize the mass in LEO for a given spacecraft mass to be inserted into the pole-sitter orbit. The results are compared with a ballistic transfer that exploits manifold-like trajectories that wind onto the pole-sitter orbit. It is shown that, with respect to the ballistic case, low-thrust propulsion can achieve significant mass savings in excess of 200 kg for a pole-sitter spacecraft of 1000 kg upon insertion. To finally obtain a full low-thrust transfer from LEO up to the pole-sitter orbit, the Fregat launch is replaced by a low-thrust, minimum time spiral, which provides further mass savings, but at the cost of an increased time of flight.     

Optimal interplanetary rendezvous combining electric sail and high thrust propulsion system

The aim of this paper is to study, from a mission analysis point of view, the performance of a hybrid propulsion concept for a two-dimensional transfer towards a planet of the Solar System. The propulsion system is obtained by combining a chemical thruster, used for the phases of Earth escape and/or target planet capture, with an electric sail, which provides a continuous thrust during the heliocentric transfer. Two possible mission scenarios are investigated: in the first case the sailcraft reaches the target planet with zero hyperbolic excess velocity, thus performing a classical rendezvous mission in a heliocentric framework. In the second mission scenario, a given final hyperbolic excess velocity relative to the planet is tolerated in order to decrease the mission flight time. The amount of final hyperbolic excess velocity is used as a simulation parameter for a tradeoff study in which the minimum flight time is related to the total velocity variation required by the chemical thruster to accomplish the mission, that is, for Earth escape and planetary capture.     

The Use of a Solar Electrojet Propulsion System for Jupiter Satellite Injection

The problem of optimization of the interplanetary trajectory of flight for a multistage spacecraft with high- and low-thrust engines into the Jupiter satellite orbit is considered. Low-thrust engines (stationary plasma engines) are used on a heliocentric flight segment. Their operation is maintained with electric power supply from solar batteries. The principal feasibility of the realization of such a project is shown, and estimations of the mass of a spacecraft placed into Jupiter's satellite orbit are presented.     

Comparative assessment of human–Mars-mission technologies and architectures

We compare a variety of mission scenarios to assess the strengths and weaknesses of options for Mars exploration. The mission design space is modeled along two dimensions: trajectory architectures and propulsion system technologies. We examine direct, semi-direct, stop-over, semi-cycler, and cycler architectures, and we include electric propulsion, nuclear thermal rockets, methane and oxygen production on Mars, Mars water excavation, aerocapture, and reusable propulsion systems in our technology assessment. The mission sensitivity to crew size, vehicle masses, and crew travel time is also examined. Many different combinations of technologies and architectures are applied to the same Mars mission to determine which combinations provide the greatest potential reduction in the injected mass to LEO. We approximate the technology readiness level of a mission to rank development risk, but omit development cost and time calculations in our assessment. It is found that Earth–Mars semi-cyclers and cyclers require the least injected mass to LEO of any architecture and that the discovery of accessible water on Mars has the most dramatic effect on the evolution of Mars exploration.     

How we will go to Mars

This article studies the efficiency of ejecting waste generated by the life support system (LSS) of a manned spacecraft to reduce initial mass on low earth orbit. The spacecraft is used for a long-duration interplanetary mission and is equipped with either a chemical or a nuclear-thermal propulsion system. For this study we simulate an optimal control problem for a given spacecraft maneuver. An impulsive approximation of the optimal interplanetary spacecraft trajectory is assumed, which allows us to reduce the general optimal control problem to hierarchic structure of 'outer' and 'inner' subproblems. This structure is analyzed using the Pontryagin's Maximum principle. Numerical results, illustrating the efficiency of waste ejection are shown for typical Earth-Mars transfer trajectories. This results confirm in theory that using a waste ejection system makes an early manned Mars mission possible without having to design and build new, advanced biological LSS.     

Spacecraft Injection into a Heliocentric Terrestrial Orbit

We consider the problem of injection of a spacecraft into the heliocentric Earth's orbit ahead and/or behind the Earth by 60° and 120° in heliographic longitude. The range of solar and astrophysical problems for which these orbits are necessary is reviewed. The variants of injection into heliocentric orbits work from a low around-Earth orbit with one turn-on of the engine in this orbit and one turn-on at the end of the injection trajectory. In this case, it turns out to be more profitable to put spacecraft into orbit for three or even four revolutions of the Earth about the Sun. The velocities necessary for the start from a low around-Earth orbit, the velocities at the final point of injection, and the fuel mass (relative to the spacecraft mass) necessary for injection are estimated. The problems for which injection to similar orbits is executed, using the low-thrust engine and with a combined regime of injection, are also considered.     

Optimization of the trajectory of the spacecraft insertion into the system of heliocentric orbits

The possibility of the spacecraft insertion into the system of operational heliocentric orbits has been analyzed. It has been proposed to use a system of several operational heliocentric orbits. On each orbit, the spacecraft makes one or more revolutions around the Sun. These orbits are characterized by a relatively small perihelion radius and relatively high inclination, which allows one to investigate the polar regions of the Sun. The transition of the spacecraft from one orbit to another has been performed using an unpowered gravity assist maneuver near Venus and does not require the cruise propulsion operation. Each maneuver transfers the spacecraft into the sequence of operational heliocentric orbits. We have analyzed several systems of operational heliocentric orbits into which the spacecraft can be inserted by means of the considered transportation system with electric propulsion (EP). The mass of the spacecraft delivered to these systems of operational orbits has been estimated.     

High energy-density propulsion—reducing the risk to humans in planetary exploration

The potential benefits to humankind of space exploration are tremendous. Space is not only the final frontier but is also the next marketplace. The orbital space above Earth offers tremendous opportunities for both strategic assets and commercial development. The critical obstacle retarding the use of the space around the Earth is the lack of low cost access to orbit. Further out, the next giant leap for mankind will be the human exploration of Mars. Almost certainly within the next 30 years, a human crew will brave the isolation, the radiation, and the lack of gravity to walk on and explore the Red planet. Both of these missions will change the outlook and perspective of every human being on the planet. However, these missions are expensive and extremely difficult. Chemical propulsion has demonstrated an inability to achieve orbit cheaply and is a very high-risk option to accomplish the Mars mission. An alternative solution is to develop a high performance propulsion system. Nuclear propulsion has the potential to be such a system. The question will be whether humanity is willing to take on the challenge.     

Human exploration of near earth asteroids: Mission analysis for chemical and electric propulsion

This paper presents a mission analysis comparison of human missions to asteroids using two distinct architectures. The objective is to determine if either architecture can reduce launch mass with respect to the other, while not sacrificing other performance metrics such as mission duration. One architecture relies on chemical propulsion, the traditional workhorse of space exploration. The second combines chemical and electric propulsion into a hybrid architecture that attempts to utilize the strengths of each, namely the short flight times of chemical propulsion and the propellant efficiency of electric propulsion. The architectures are thoroughly detailed, and accessibility of the known asteroid population is determined for both. The most accessible asteroids are discussed in detail. Aspects such as mission abort scenarios and vehicle reusability are also discussed. Ultimately, it is determined that launch mass can be greatly reduced with the hybrid architecture, without a notable increase in mission duration. This demonstrates that significant performance improvements can be introduced to the next step of human space exploration with realistic electric propulsion system capabilities. This leads to immediate cost savings for human exploration and simultaneously opens a path of technology development that leads to technologies enabling access to even further destinations in the future.     

Mission analysis and systems design of a near-term and far-term pole-sitter mission

This paper provides a detailed mission analysis and systems design of a near-term and far-term pole-sitter mission. The pole-sitter concept was previously introduced as a solution to the poor temporal resolution of polar observations from highly inclined, low Earth orbits and the poor high-latitude coverage from geostationary orbit. It considers a spacecraft that is continuously above either the north or south pole and, as such, can provide real-time, continuous and hemispherical coverage of the polar regions. Being on a non-Keplerian orbit, a continuous thrust is required to maintain the pole-sitter position. For this, two different propulsion strategies are proposed, which result in a near-term pole-sitter mission using solar electric propulsion (SEP) and a far-term pole-sitter mission where the SEP thruster is hybridized with a solar sail. For both propulsion strategies, minimum propellant pole-sitter orbits are designed. In order to maximize the spacecraft mass at the start of the operations phase of the mission, the transfer from Earth to the pole-sitter orbit is designed and optimized assuming either a Soyuz or an Ariane 5 launch. The maximized mass upon injection into the pole-sitter orbit is subsequently used in a detailed mass budget analysis that will allow for a trade-off between mission lifetime and payload mass capacity. Also, candidate payloads for a range of applications are investigated. Finally, transfers between north and south pole-sitter orbits are considered to overcome the limitations in observations due to the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis that causes the poles to be alternately situated in darkness. It will be shown that in some cases these transfers allow for propellant savings, enabling a further extension of the pole-sitter mission.     

Mission to Mars using integrated propulsion concepts: considerations, opportunities, and strategies

The aim of this paper is to evaluate the feasibility of a mission to Mars using the Integrated Propulsion Systems (IPS) which means to couple Nuclear-MPD-ISPU propulsion systems. In particular both mission analysis and propulsion aspects are analyzed together with technological aspects. Identifying possible mission scenarios will lead to the study of possible strategies for Mars Exploration and also of methods for reducing cost. As regard to IPS, the coupling between Nuclear Propulsion (Rubbia's engine) and Superconductive MPD propulsion is considered for the Earth-Mars trajectories: major emphasis is given to the advantages of such a system. The In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) concerns on-Mars operations; In Situ Propellant Utilization (ISPU) is foreseen particularly for LOX-CH4 engines for Mars Ascent Vehicles and this possibility is analyzed from a technological point of view. Tether Systems are also considered during interplanetary trajectories and as space elevators on Mars orbit. Finally strategic considerations associated to this mission are considered also.     

Optimization of Interplanetary Flights of Spacecraft with Low-Thrust Engines Taking into Account the Ellipticity and Noncoplanarity of Planetary Orbits

The problem of optimization of the interplanetary flight Earth–Mars–Earth is formulated with restrictions on the total duration of this mission and with taking the ellipticity and noncoplanarity of planetary orbits into account. An iteration scheme for solving the problem is developed, which is based on applying a sequence of flight models with increasing complexity. An approach to choosing the points of mating the planetocentric and heliocentric trajectory segments is suggested. The influence of the errors of method of the model on the results of optimization is estimated. Software tools are developed, and full computer start-to-finish simulation of the flight is carried out with graphic representation of the trajectory segments.     

Fuel optimum low-thrust elliptic transfer using numerical averaging

Low-thrust electric propulsion is increasingly being used for spacecraft missions primarily due to its high propellant efficiency. As a result, a simple and fast method for low-thrust trajectory optimization is of great value for preliminary mission planning. However, few low-thrust trajectory tools are appropriate for preliminary mission design studies. The method presented in this paper provides quick and accurate solutions for a wide range of transfers by using numerical orbital averaging to improve solution convergence and include orbital perturbations. Thus, preliminary trajectories can be obtained for transfers which involve many revolutions about the primary body. This method considers minimum fuel transfers using first-order averaging to obtain the fuel optimum rates of change of the equinoctial orbital elements in terms of each other and the Lagrange multipliers. Constraints on thrust and power, as well as minimum periapsis, are implemented and the equations are averaged numerically using a Gausian quadrature. The use of numerical averaging allows for more complex orbital perturbations to be added in the future without great difficulty. The effects of zonal gravity harmonics, solar radiation pressure, and thrust limitations due to shadowing are included in this study. The solution to a transfer which minimizes the square of the thrust magnitude is used as a preliminary guess for the minimum fuel problem, thus allowing for faster convergence to a wider range of problems. Results from this model are shown to provide a reduction in propellant mass required over previous minimum fuel solutions.     

核热推进载人火星探测方案设计

针对载人火星探测任务，结合我国现有技术基础，提出我国载人火星探测方案，重点研究载人火星探测任务推进系统的设计。首先，综合考虑载人深空探测任务的约束，采用Pork-Chop图设计了适用于不同任务场景的转移轨迹；然后，参考我国空间站技术，基于核热推进系统设计了我国载人火星探测任务的飞船；最后，对核热推进系统的发动机台数和推力进行了优化，得到了适用于不同任务场景的最优推进系统组合方案。本文所研究内容为我国未来载人火星探测任务提供了有益参考。     

Dynamic modeling and optimization for space logistics using time-expanded networks

This research develops a dynamic logistics network formulation for lifecycle optimization of mission sequences as a system-level integrated method to find an optimal combination of technologies to be used at each stage of the campaign. This formulation can find the optimal transportation architecture considering its technology trades over time. The proposed methodologies are inspired by the ground logistics analysis techniques based on linear programming network optimization. Particularly, the time-expanded network and its extension are developed for dynamic space logistics network optimization trading the quality of the solution with the computational load. In this paper, the methodologies are applied to a human Mars exploration architecture design problem. The results reveal multiple dynamic system-level trades over time and give recommendation of the optimal strategy for the human Mars exploration architecture. The considered trades include those between In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) and propulsion technologies as well as the orbit and depot location selections over time. This research serves as a precursor for eventual permanent settlement and colonization of other planets by humans and us becoming a multi-planet species.     

First results of PRECISE—Development of a MEMS-based monopropellant micro chemical propulsion system

PRECISE focuses on the research and development of a MEMS-based monopropellant micro chemical propulsion system for highly accurate attitude control of satellites. The availability of such propulsion systems forms the basis for defining new mission concepts such as formation flying and rendezvous manoeuvres. These concepts require propulsion systems for precise attitude and orbit control manoeuvrability. Application-oriented aspects are addressed by two end-users who are planning a formation flying mission for which the propulsion system is crucial. Basic research is conducted aiming at improving crucial MEMS technologies required for the propulsion system. Research and development also focuses on the efficiency and reliability of critical system components. System analysis tools are enhanced to complement the development stages. Finally, the propulsion system will be tested in a simulated space vacuum environment. These experiments will deliver data for the validation of the numerical models.     

Mars Direct: Humans to the red planet by 1999

“Mars Direct”, is an approach to the space Exploration Initiative that allows for the rapid initiation of manned Mars exploration, possibly as early as 1999. The approach does not require any on-orbit assembly or refueling or any support from the Space Station or other orbital infrastructure. Furthermore, the Mars Direct plan is not merely a “flags and footprints” one-shot expedition, but puts into place immediately an economical method of Earth-Mars transportation, real surface exploratory mobility, and significant base capabilities that can evolve into a mostly self-sufficient Mars settlement. This paper presents both the initial and evolutionary phases of the Mars Direct plan. In the initial phase, only chemical propulsion is used, sendig 4 persons on conjunction class Mars exploratory missions. Two heavy lift booster launches are required to support each mission. The first launch delivers an unfueled Earth Return Vehicle (ERV) to the martian surface, where it fills itself with methane/oxygen bipropellant manufactured primarily out of indigenous resources. After propellant production is completed, a second launch delivers the crew to the prepared site, where they conduct regional exploration for 1.5 years and then return directly to Earth in the ERV. In the second phase of Mars Direct, nuclear thermal propulsion is used to cut crew transit times in half, increase cargo delivery capacity, and to create the potential for true global mobility through the use of CO₂ propelled ballistic hopping vehicles (“NIMFs”). In this paper we present both phases of the Mars Direct plan, including mission architecture, vehicle designs, and exploratory strategy leading to the establishment of a 48 person permanent Mars base. Some speculative thoughts on the possibility of actually colonizing Mars are also presented.     

International Space Station as a base camp for exploration beyond low Earth orbit

The idea for using the International Space Station (ISS) as a platform for exploration has matured in the past few years and the concept continues to gain momentum. ISS provides a robust infrastructure which can be used to test systems and capabilities needed for missions to the Moon, Mars, asteroids and other potential destinations. International cooperation is a critical enabler and ISS has already demonstrated successful management of a large multi-national technical endeavor. Systems and resources needed for expeditions can be aggregated and thoroughly tested at ISS before departure thus providing wide operational flexibility and the best assurance of mission success. A small part of ISS called an Exploration Platform (ISS-EP) can be placed in cislunar space providing immediate benefits and flexibility for future exploration missions.We will show how ISS and the ISS-EP can be used to reduce risk and improve the operational flexibility for missions beyond low Earth orbit. Life support systems and other technologies developed for ISS can be evolved and adapted to the ISS-EP and other exploration spacecrafts. New technology, such as electric propulsion and advanced life support systems can be tested and proven at ISS as part of an incremental development program. Commercial companies who are introducing transportation and other services will benefit with opportunities to contribute to the mission since ISS will serve as a focal point for the commercialization of low earth orbit services. Finally, we will show how the use of ISS provides immediate benefits to the scientific community because its capabilities are available today and certain critical aspects of exploration missions can be simulated.     

Propulsion of space ships by nuclear explosion

Recent progress in the research on deuterium-tritium (D-T) inertially confined microexplosions encourages one to reconsider the nuclear propulsion of spaceships based on the concept originally proposed in the Orion project. We discuss first the acceleration of medium-sized spaceships by D-T explosions whose output is in the range of 0.1–10 t of TNT. The launching of such a ship into an Earth orbit or beyond by a large nuclear explosion in an underground cavity is sketched out in the second section of the paper, and finally we consider a hypothetical Mars mission based on these concepts. In the conclusion it is argued that propulsion based on the Orion concept only is not the best method for interplanetary travel owing to the very large number of nuclear explosion required. A combination of a super gun and subsequent rocket propulsion using advanced chemical fuels appears to be the best solution for space flights of the near future.From Kosmicheskie Issledovaniya, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2005, pp. 67–75.Original English Text Copyright © 2005 by Linhart, Kravárik.