Dust Properties in the Local Interstellar Medium

Ulysses measurements yield reliable in-situdetection of large dust particles which stem from the interstellar medium (ISM) and which are not observed in interstellar extinction data. Both current models of large grains in the ISM: core-mantle grains as well as composite grains, are in agreement with dust properties implied by the Ulysses results. However, the size of particles detected by Ulysses still exceeds the size of the large grains that are predicted for the ISM. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Rocky Cometary Particulates: Their Elemental,Isotopic and Mineralogical Ingredients

The determination of the chemical composition of solid cometary dust particles was one of the prime objectives of the three missions to Comet Halley in 1986. The dust analysis was performed by time-of-flight mass-spectrometry. Within the experimental uncertainty the mean abundances of the rock-forming elements in cometary dust particles are comparable to their abundances in CI-chondrites and in the solar photosphere, i.e. they are cosmic. H, C, and N, on the other hand, in cometary dust are significantly more abundant than in CI-chondrites, approach solar abundances, are to some extent related to O, and reside in an omnipresent refractory organic component dubbed CHON. Element variations between individual dust grains are characterized by correlations of Mg, Si, and O, and to a lesser extent of Fe and S. From particle-to-particle variations of the rock forming elements information on the mineralogy of cometary dust can be obtained. Cluster analysis revealed certain groups that partly match the classifications of stratospheric interplanetary dust particles. About half of Halley's analyzed particles are characterized by anhydrous Fe-poor Mg-silicates, Fe-sulfides, and rarely Fe metal. The Fe-poor Mg-silicates link Halley's dust to that of Hale-Bopp as shown by recent IR observations. No significant deviation from normal of the isotopic composition of the elements is unequivocally present with the notable exception carbon: ¹²C-rich grains with ¹²C/¹³C-ratios up to ≈ 5,000 link cometary dust to presolar circumstellar grains identified in certain chondrites. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

模拟过载条件下EPDM绝热层烧蚀实验

用一种粒子浓度、速度和角度可调的高过载模拟烧蚀发动机,开展过载条件下粒子冲刷对EPDM绝热层烧蚀特性影响的实验研究。实验结果表明:(1)存在一个临界速度,当冲刷速度低于临界速度时,粒子浓度,速度和角度对炭化烧蚀率影响较小,而当冲刷速度高于临界速度时,炭化烧蚀率随速度的增加而急剧增加,角度影响也较大。(2)弱冲刷条件下的炭化层表面平整,而粒子沉积条件下的炭化层表面附着有很多大粒径的粒子,炭化层结构也更加疏松,而强冲刷条件下,粒子由于速度较高而不易在炭化层表面沉积。(3)当低于临界速度冲刷时,炭化层的孔隙结构分布不均匀,存在致密/疏松分层结构,而高于临界速度冲刷时,炭化层结构则更为致密。(4)通过多元回归得到了炭化烧蚀率与粒子冲刷速度,浓度和角度的经验关系式。     

Composition of Light Solar Wind Noble Gases in the Bulk Metallic Glass flown on the Genesis Mission

We discuss data of light noble gases from the solar wind implanted into a metallic glass target flown on the Genesis mission. Helium and neon isotopic compositions of the bulk solar wind trapped in this target during 887 days of exposure to the solar wind do not deviate significantly from the values in foils of the Apollo Solar Wind Composition experiments, which have been exposed for hours to days. In general, the depth profile of the Ne isotopic composition is similar to those often found in lunar soils, and essentially very well reproduced by ion-implantation modelling, adopting the measured velocity distribution of solar particles during the Genesis exposure and assuming a uniform isotopic composition of solar wind neon. The results confirm that contributions from high-energy particles to the solar wind fluence are negligible, which is consistent with in-situ observations. This makes the enigmatic “SEP-Ne” component, apparently present in lunar grains at relatively large depth, obsolete. ²⁰Ne/ ²²Ne ratios in gas trapped very near the metallic glass surface are up to 10% higher than predicted by ion implantation simulations. We attribute this superficially trapped gas to very low-speed, current-sheet-related solar wind, which has been fractionated in the corona due to inefficient Coulomb drag.     

Polarization of Light Scattered by Cometary Dust Particles: Observations and Tentative Interpretations

Analysis of the polarization of light scattered by cometary particles reveals similarities amongst the phase curves, together with some clear differences: i) comets with a strong silicate emission feature present a high maximum in polarization, ii) the polarization is always slightly lower than the average in inner comae and stronger in jet-like structures. These results are in excellent agreement with the Greenberg model of dust particles built up of fluffy aggregates of much smaller grains. Also, they suggest the existence of different regions of formation, and of different stages of evolution for the scattering particles inside a given cometary coma. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Particle acceleration in solar flares and some related phenomena

Observational features concerning solar energetic particles are compactly reviewed with some emphasis on the spectra and time histories. Velocity dependent characteristics in the energy spectra are pointed out, and compared to the results of the interplanetary shocks. A shock drift acceleration is introduced in order to interpret the observational features, especially a very fast acceleration to MeV energies within an order of second. There is a strong evidence of the shock drift acceleration in the interplanetary shocks. When some conditions are satisfied in the corona, only one or several encounters of particles with a near perpendicular shock accelerates protons to gamma-ray emitting energies (> 10 MeV). Pre-acceleration is inevitable for any kind of acceleration mechanisms in solar flares. To fulfill the requirements from the abundance ratios between various species of accelerated ions, pre-acceleration to the same velocities before the injection into a main acceleration process turns out to be absolutely necessary.     

From Dust to Terrestrial Planets – Introduction

Terrestrial planets are accreted in a disk orbiting a central star. The basic challenge of their formation consists of assembling micron-sized or smaller dust grains to bodies with over 10⁴ km in diameter. This formation process, ultimately based on collisions, occurs in three very different physical regimes depending upon the size of the bodies present: 1) Early on, micron- to mm-sized dust grains, chondrules and chondrites are strongly coupled to the gas. 2) As they grow larger, gravity increases the collisional cross section allowing runaway growth to occur. 3) After this runaway phase stops from exhaustion of matter in the immediate surroundings of the protoplanets, further growth occurs on timescales typical of mutual gravitational perturbations. The emphasis of this book is on the timescales corresponding to these formation phases as well as the characteristic chemical and isotopic composition of the bodies involved. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Grain erosion wear properties and grinding performance of porous aggregated cubic boron nitride abrasive wheels

Cubic boron nitride (cBN) superabrasive grinding wheels exhibit unique advantages in the grinding of difficult-to-cut materials with high strength and toughness, such as titanium alloys and superalloys. However, grinding with multilayered metallic cBN superabrasive wheels faces problems in terms of grain wear resistance, the chip storage capability of the working layers and the stability and controllability of the dressing process. Therefore, in this work, novel metallic cBN superabrasive wheels with aggregated cBN (AcBN) grains and open pore structures were fabricated to improve machining efficiency and surface quality. Prior to the grinding trials, the air-borne abrasive blasting process was conducted and the abrasive blasting parameters were optimized in view of wear properties of cBN grains and metallic matrix materials. Subsequently, the comparative experiments were performed and then the variations in grinding force and force ratio, grinding temperature, tool wear morphology and ground surface quality of the multilayered AcBN grinding wheels were investigated during machining Ti–6Al–4V alloys. In consideration of the variations of grain erosion wear volume and material removal rate per unit of pure metallic matrix materials as the abrasive blasting parameters changes, the optimal abrasive blasting parameters were identified as the SiC abrasive mesh size of 60# and the abrasive blasting distance and time of 60 mm and 15 s, respectively. The as-developed AcBN grains exhibited better fracture toughness and impact resistance than monocrystalline cBN (McBN) grains because of the existence of metal-bonded materials amongst multiple cBN particles that decreased crack propagation inside whole grains. The metallic porous AcBN wheels had lower grinding forces and temperature and better ground surface quality than vitrified McBN wheels due to the constant layer-by-layer exposure of cBN particles in the working layer of AcBN wheels.     

How Well Do Experimental Results on Large Samples of Gas-Laden Amorphous Ice Duplicate Deep Impact’s Findings?

The findings of Deep Impact on the structure and composition of Tempel-1 are compared with our experimental results on large (20 cm diameter and up to 10 cm high) samples of gas-laden amorphous ice which does not contain dust. The mechanical ～tensile strength inferred for Tempel-1: up to 12 kPa is close to our experimental findings of 2–4 kPa. This means that Tempel-1 is as fluffy as our very fluffy, talcum like, ice sample. The thermal inertia: 30<I<100 W?K^?1?m^?2?s^1/2 is close to our value of 80. The density of 350±250 kg?m^?3, is close to our value of 250–300 kg?m^?3, taking into account an ice/silicate ratio of 1 in the comet, while we study pure ice. Surface morphological features, such as non-circular depressions and chaotic terrain, were observed in our experiments. The only small increase in the gas/water vapor ratio pre- and post-impact, suggest that in the area excavated by the impactor, the 135 K front did not penetrate deeper than a few meters. Altogether, the agreement between the findings of Deep Impact and our experimental results point to a loose agglomerate of ice grains (with a silicate-organic core), which was formed by a very gentle aggregation of the ice grains, without compaction.     

Mercury’s Weather-Beaten Surface: Understanding Mercury in the Context of Lunar and Asteroidal Space Weathering Studies

Mercury’s regolith, derived from the crustal bedrock, has been altered by a set of space weathering processes. Before we can interpret crustal composition, it is necessary to understand the nature of these surface alterations. The processes that space weather the surface are the same as those that form Mercury’s exosphere (micrometeoroid flux and solar wind interactions) and are moderated by the local space environment and the presence of a global magnetic field. To comprehend how space weathering acts on Mercury’s regolith, an understanding is needed of how contributing processes act as an interactive system. As no direct information (e.g., from returned samples) is available about how the system of space weathering affects Mercury’s regolith, we use as a basis for comparison the current understanding of these same processes on lunar and asteroidal regoliths as well as laboratory simulations. These comparisons suggest that Mercury’s regolith is overturned more frequently (though the characteristic surface time for a grain is unknown even relative to the lunar case), more than an order of magnitude more melt and vapor per unit time and unit area is produced by impact processes than on the Moon (creating a higher glass content via grain coatings and agglutinates), the degree of surface irradiation is comparable to or greater than that on the Moon, and photon irradiation is up to an order of magnitude greater (creating amorphous grain rims, chemically reducing the upper layers of grains to produce nanometer-scale particles of metallic iron, and depleting surface grains in volatile elements and alkali metals). The processes that chemically reduce the surface and produce nanometer-scale particles on Mercury are suggested to be more effective than similar processes on the Moon. Estimated abundances of nanometer-scale particles can account for Mercury’s dark surface relative to that of the Moon without requiring macroscopic grains of opaque minerals. The presence of nanometer-scale particles may also account for Mercury’s relatively featureless visible–near-infrared reflectance spectra. Characteristics of material returned from asteroid 25143 Itokawa demonstrate that this nanometer-scale material need not be pure iron, raising the possibility that the nanometer-scale material on Mercury may have a composition different from iron metal [such as (Fe,Mg)S]. The expected depletion of volatiles and particularly alkali metals from solar-wind interaction processes are inconsistent with the detection of sodium, potassium, and sulfur within the regolith. One plausible explanation invokes a larger fine fraction (grain size <45 μm) and more radiation-damaged grains than in the lunar surface material to create a regolith that is a more efficient reservoir for these volatiles. By this view the volatile elements detected are present not only within the grain structures, but also as adsorbates within the regolith and deposits on the surfaces of the regolith grains. The comparisons with findings from the Moon and asteroids provide a basis for predicting how compositional modifications induced by space weathering have affected Mercury’s surface composition.     

Physics of interplanetary and interstellar dust

Observations of dust in the solar system and in the diffuse interstellar medium are summarized. New measurements of interstellar dust in the heliosphere extend our knowledge about micron-sized and bigger particles in the local interstellar medium. Interplanetary grains extend from submicron- to meter-sized meteoroids. The main destructive effect in the solar system are mutual collisions which provide an effective source for smaller particles. In the diffuse interstellar medium sputtering is believed to be the dominant destructive effect on submicron-sized grains. However, an effective supply mechanism for these grains is presently unknown. The dominant transport mechanisms in the solar system is the Poynting-Robertson effect which sweeps meteoroids bigger than about one micron in size towards the sun. Smaller particles are driven out of the solar system by radiation pressure and electromagnetic interaction with the interplanetary magnetic field. In the diffuse interstellar medium coupling of charged interstellar grains to large-scale magnetic fields seem to dominate frictional coupling of dust to the interstellar gas.     

二维激光多普勒测速系统用于测量湍流分离流动

 为解决具有回流区的高湍流度分离流动的二维测量问题,研制了一种偏振分离型二维激光测速系统;测量了非对称阶跃扩张管道中湍流分离区的平均速度向量分布;得到了回流中心位置和回流区长度等参数;部分实验结果同数值模拟结果作了比较。     

Fragment Identification and Statistics Method of Hypervelocity Impact SPH Simulation

A comprehensive treatment to the fragment identification and statistics for the smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) simulation of hypervelocity impact is presented. Based on SPH method, combined with finite element method (FEM), the computation is performed. The fragments are identified by a new pre- and post-processing algorithm and then converted into a binary graph. The number of fragments and the attached SPH particles are determined by counting the quantity of connected domains on the binary graph. The size, velocity vector and mass of each fragment are calculated by the particles’ summation and weighted average. The dependence of this method on finite element edge length and simulation terminal time is discussed. An example of tungsten rods impacting steel plates is given for calibration. The computation results match experiments well and demonstrate the effectiveness of this method.     

Formation of Planetesimals and Accretion of the Terrestrial Planets

Planetesimals formed in the solar nebula by collisional coagulation. Dust aggregates settled toward the central plane, the larger ones growing by sweeping up smaller ones. A thin, dense layer of particles formed; shear-generated turbulence and differential motions induced by gas drag inhibited gravitational instability. Growth proceeded by collisions, producing planetesimals on a timescale of a few thousand years in the terrestrial zone. For bodies smaller than about a kilometer, motions were dominated by gas drag, and impact velocities decreased with size. At larger sizes gravitational interactions became significant, and velocities increased due to mutual perturbations. Larger bodies then grew more rapidly, this ``runaway' led to formation of tens to hundreds of lunar- to Mars-sized planetary embryos in the zone of terrestrial planets. The final accretion of these bodies into a few planets involved large impacts, and occurred on a timescale of 10⁷ to 10⁸ years. This scenario gives a reasonably consistent picture of the origin of the terrestrial planets, but does not account for the anomalously low eccentricities of the Earth and Venus. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

低燃速HTPB推进剂燃速控制研究

研究了低燃速ＨＴＰＢ推进剂药柱燃速的控制规律,结果表明：球形高氯酸铵的粒度是决定燃速的主要因素;在粒度相同的情况下,原材料换批等其它工艺因素的差异导致的燃速变化值小于设计公差;经粉碎处理的细粒使高氯酸铵在存放期结块导致燃速缓慢的下降;１０Ｌ预示燃速略高于５００Ｌ随机燃速。     

The Cassini Cosmic Dust Analyzer

The Cassini-Huygens Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA) is intended to provide direct observations of dust grains with masses between 10⁻¹⁹ and 10⁻⁹ kg in interplanetary space and in the jovian and saturnian systems, to investigate their physical, chemical and dynamical properties as functions of the distances to the Sun, to Jupiter and to Saturn and its satellites and rings, to study their interaction with the saturnian rings, satellites and magnetosphere. Chemical composition of interplanetary meteoroids will be compared with asteroidal and cometary dust, as well as with Saturn dust, ejecta from rings and satellites. Ring and satellites phenomena which might be effects of meteoroid impacts will be compared with the interplanetary dust environment. Electrical charges of particulate matter in the magnetosphere and its consequences will be studied, e.g. the effects of the ambient plasma and the magnetic field on the trajectories of dust particles as well as fragmentation of particles due to electrostatic disruption.The investigation will be performed with an instrument that measures the mass, composition, electric charge, speed, and flight direction of individual dust particles. It is a highly reliable and versatile instrument with a mass sensitivity 10⁶ times higher than that of the Pioneer 10 and 11 dust detectors which measured dust in the saturnian system. The Cosmic Dust Analyzer has significant inheritance from former space instrumentation developed for the VEGA, Giotto, Galileo, and Ulysses missions. It will reliably measure impacts from as low as 1 impact per month up to 10⁴ impacts per second. The instrument weighs 17 kg and consumes 12 W, the integrated time-of-flight mass spectrometer has a mass resolution of up to 50. The nominal data transmission rate is 524 bits/s and varies between 50 and 4192 bps.This revised version was published online in July 2005 with a corrected cover date.     

基于3RRS-Bricard复合空间捕获系统运动学分析

面向跨尺度、目标多样化的空间捕获任务,融合Bricard和3RRS机构的折展特性和几何特点对复合捕获系统运动学进行了分析。基于捕获系统的自由度和构型特点分析,通过构建Bricard与3RRS间的转换关系实现了捕获系统各机构间的运动学解耦。根据六棱柱模型,引入Bricard虚拟顶点,设计了面向复合空间捕获系统的运动学求解方法。在仿真环境下搭建捕获系统的运动学和动力学模型,并开展针对动态捕获目标的轨迹跟随实验。通过与基于闭环约束的阻尼最小二乘法（DLS）对比,验证了该运动学求解算法的有效性和先进性。实验结果表明,捕获系统可实现平稳的协同控制,运动过程中位置跟随精度优于4 mm,姿态精度优于0.035 rad。     

Element Separation in the Chromosphere Ionization-Diffusion Models for the FIP-Effect

Ionization-diffusion mechanisms to understand the first ionization potential (FIP) fractionation as observed in the solar corona and the solar wind are reviewed. The enrichment of the low-FIP elements (<10 eV) compared to the high-FIP elements, seen in e.g. slow and fast wind or polar plumes, is explained. The behaviour of the heavy noble gases becomes understandable. The absolute fractionation, i.e. in relation to hydrogen, can be calculated and fits well to the measurements. The theoretical velocity-dependence of the fractionation will with used to determine the velocities of the solar wind in the chromosphere. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

自适应的光纤布拉格光栅图像寻峰算法

根据实际光谱特征, 提出了自适应的光纤布拉格光栅图像寻峰算法。针对 不同环境物理场及噪声分布下的光栅谱型,该算法能自动检测光谱的带宽和信噪比,自 适应地调整算法的高斯模板带宽大小,提高谱型匹配及滤波效果,从而提高寻峰精度。 将该算法与高斯拟合法、质心法进行对比,分析了其在不同噪声大小及非均匀温度场分 布下光纤布拉格光栅反射光谱的寻峰精度。理论仿真及实际寻峰结果表明,该寻峰算法 具有较强的抗噪能力及谱型适应性,较质心法、高斯拟合法具有显著优势。     

Experimental studies on the burning of coated and uncoated micro and nano-sized aluminium particles

Two different approaches are used in this work to reduce the burning times of aluminium particles with the ultimate goal to improve the performances of solid propellants. One method is to coat the micro-sized particles by nickel, and the second is to decrease the particle sizes to nano-metric scales.A thin coating of Ni on the surface of Al particles can prevent their agglomeration and at the same time facilitates their ignition, thus increasing the efficiency of aluminized propellants. In this work, ignition and burning of single Ni-coated Al particles are investigated using an electrodynamic levitation setup and laser heating of the particles. The levitation experiments are used to measure the particle ignition delay time and burning time at different Ni contents in the particles.Decreasing the size of Al particles increases their specific surface, and hence decreases the burning time of the same mass of particles. In this investigation, a cloud of Al nano-particles formed in a combustion tube is ignited by an electric spark. The cloud experiments are used to measure comparative flame front propagation velocities for different Al particle sizes with and without organic coating.The results and their analysis show that both methods reduce the Al burning time. Ni coating reduces significantly the ignition time of micro-sized Al particles and hence the total burning time compared to non-coated particles. Nano-sized particle clouds burn faster than micro-sized Al particle clouds.