Antiparticle content in the magnetosphere

In the present work we assess the stable and transient antiparticle content of planetary magnetospheres, and subsequently we consider their capture and application to high delta-v space propulsion. We estimate the total antiparticle mass contained within the Earth’s magnetosphere to assess the expediency of such usage. Using Earth’s magnetic field region as an example, we have considered the various source mechanisms that are applicable to a planetary magnetosphere, the confinement duration versus transport processes, and the antiparticle loss mechanisms. We have estimated the content of the trapped population of antiparticles magnetically confined following production in the exosphere due to nuclear interactions between high energy cosmic rays (CR) and constituents of the residual planetary upper atmosphere.The galactic antiprotons that directly penetrate into the Earth’s magnetosphere are themselves secondary by its nature, i.e. produced in nuclear reactions of the cosmic rays passing through the interstellar matter. These antiproton fluxes are modified, dependent on energy, when penetrating into the heliosphere and subsequently into planetary magnetospheres. During its lifetime in the Galaxy, CR pass through the small grammage of the interstellar matter where they produce secondary antiprotons. In contrast to this, antiprotons generated by the same CR in magnetosphere are locally produced at a path length of several tens g/cm² of matter in the ambient planetary upper atmosphere. Due to the latter process, the resulting magnetically confined fluxes significantly exceed the fluxes of the galactic antiprotons in the Earth’s vicinity by up to two orders of magnitude at some energies.The radiation belt antiparticles can possibly be extracted with an electromagnetic-based “scoop” device. The antiparticles could be concentrated by and then stored within the superimposed magnetic field structure of such a device. In future developments, it is anticipated that the energy of the captured antiparticles (both rest energy and kinetic energy) can be adapted for use as a fuel for propelling spacecraft to high velocities for remote solar system missions.     

Non-linear diffusion of cosmic rays

The propagation of cosmic rays in the interstellar medium after their release from the sources – supernova remnants – can be attended by the development of streaming instability. The instability creates MHD turbulence that changes the conditions of particle transport and leads to a non-linear diffusion of cosmic rays. We present a self-similar solution of the equation of non-linear diffusion for particles ejected from a SNR and discuss how obtained results may change the physical picture of cosmic ray propagation in the Galaxy.     

Modeling ground and space based cosmic ray observations

After entering our local astrosphere (called the heliosphere), galactic cosmic rays, as charged particles, are affected by the Sun’s turbulent magnetic field. This causes their intensities to decrease towards the inner heliosphere, a process referred to as modulation. Over the years, cosmic ray modulation has been studied extensively at Earth, utilizing both ground and space based observations. Moreover, modelling cosmic ray modulation and comparing results with observations, insight can be gained into the transport of these particles, as well as offering explanations for observed features. We review some of the most prominent cosmic ray observations made near Earth, how these observations can be modelled and what main insights are gained from this modelling approach. Furthermore, a discussion on drifts, as one of the main modulation processes, are given as well as how drift effects manifest in near Earth observations. We conclude by discussing the contemporary challenges, fuelled by observations, which are presently being investigated. A main challenge is explaining observations made during the past unusual solar minimum.     

The charge-sign dependent effect in the solar modulation of cosmic rays

The centennial anniversary of the discovery of cosmic rays was in 2012. Since this discovery considerable progress has been made on several aspects related to galactic cosmic rays in the heliosphere. It is known that they encounter a turbulent solar wind with an imbedded heliospheric magnetic field when entering the Sun’s domain. This leads to significant global and temporal changes in their intensity inside the heliosphere, a process known as the solar modulation of cosmic rays. The prediction of a charge-sign dependent effect in solar modulation in the late 1970s and the confirmatory observational discoveries can also be considered as a milestone. A short review is given of these predictions based on theoretical and numerical modelling work, the observational confirmation and related issues.     

Cosmic-ray composition and its relation to shock acceleration by supernova remnants

An overview is given on the present status of the understanding of the origin of galactic cosmic rays. Recent measurements of charged cosmic rays and photons are reviewed. Their impact on the contemporary knowledge about the sources and acceleration mechanisms of cosmic rays and their propagation through the Galaxy is discussed. Possible reasons for the knee in the energy spectrum and scenarios for the end of the galactic cosmic-ray component are described.     

Galactic cosmic ray composition and energy spectra.

Galactic cosmic ray nuclei represent a significant risk to long-duration spaceflight outside the magnetosphere. We review briefly existing measurements of the composition and energy spectra of heavy cosmic ray nuclei, pointing out which species and energy ranges are most critical to assessing cosmic ray risks for spaceflight. Key data sets are identified and a table of cosmic ray abundances is presented for elements from H to Ni (Z = 1 to 28). Because of the 22-year nature of the solar modulation cycle, data from the approaching 1998 solar minimum is especially important to reducing uncertainties in the cosmic ray radiation hazard. It is recommended that efforts to model this hazard take advantage of approaches that have been developed to model the astrophysical aspects of cosmic rays.     

Precise measurements of the cosmic ray antiproton spectrum with BESS including the effects of solar modulation

The Balloon Borne Experiment with a Superconducting Spectrometer (BESS) has measured the energy spectrum of cosmic-ray antiprotons between 0.18 and 4.20 GeV in eight flights between 1993 and 2002. Above about 1 GeV, models in which antiprotons are secondary products of the interactions of primary cosmic rays with the interstellar gas agree with the BESS antiproton spectrum. Below 1 GeV, the data show a possible excess antiproton flux compared to secondary model predictions, suggesting the presence of an additional source of antiprotons. The antiproton/proton ratios measured between 1993 and 1999, during the Sun’s positive-polarity phase, are consistent with simple models of solar modulation. However, results from the 2000 flight, following the solar magnetic field reversal, show a sudden increase in the antiproton/proton ratio and tend to favor a charge-sign-dependent drift model. To extend BESS measurements to lower energies, an evolutionary instrument, BESS-Polar, is under construction for polar flight in 2004.     

Cosmic-ray antiprotons in the galaxy

A key issue in fundamental physics is the nature of non-baryonic dark matter in the universe. Among the candidates proposed by the particle physics community are neutralinos whose annihilation in the Galactic halo can produce antiprotons with a characteristic spectrum. Several balloon and space borne experiments have been actively looking to detect the neutralino signature in cosmic antiprotons. This task is however hampered by the existence of a secondary “background” flux of antiprotons produced in the interactions of cosmic-ray particles in the interstellar medium. A notable difficulty is that a self-consistent and complete model of cosmic-ray propagation in the Galaxy has thus far been elusive. When subtracting the secondary background from the observed data, it is therefore critical that all viable models of secondary cosmic-ray antiproton propagation be thoroughly examined, and all uncertainties stemming from plurality of the models be duly considered. In this paper we concentrate on three particular models of Diffusion, Galactic Wind, and Distributed Stochastic Reacceleration, and discuss the predicted antiproton spectrum in each model.     

宇宙线在星际介质中的传播——路径长度,居留时间和寿命

本文根据银河宇宙线的传播方程解[1],分析HEAO-3C-2资料,确定了宇宙线在银河系中的逃逸路径长度分布和居留时间,同时根据锰-54的衰变确定了宇宙线年龄。      

The scaler mode in the Pierre Auger Observatory to study heliospheric modulation of cosmic rays

The impact of the solar activity on the heliosphere has a strong influence on the modulation of the flux of low energy galactic cosmic rays arriving at Earth. Different instruments, such as neutron monitors or muon detectors, have been recording the variability of the cosmic ray flux at ground level for several decades. Although the Pierre Auger Observatory was designed to observe cosmic rays at the highest energies, it also records the count rates of low energy secondary particles (the scaler mode) for the self-calibration of its surface detector array. From observations using the scaler mode at the Pierre Auger Observatory, modulation of galactic cosmic rays due to solar transient activity has been observed (e.g., Forbush decreases). Due to the high total count rate coming from the combined area of its detectors, the Pierre Auger Observatory (its detectors have a total area greater than 16,000 m²) detects a flux of secondary particles of the order of ∼10⁸ counts per minute. Time variations of the cosmic ray flux related to the activity of the heliosphere can be determined with high accuracy. In this paper we briefly describe the scaler mode and analyze a Forbush decrease together with the interplanetary coronal mass ejection that originated it. The Auger scaler data are now publicly available.     

Challenges to cosmic ray modeling: From beyond the solar wind termination shock

Voyager 1 crossed the solar wind termination shock on December 16, 2004 at a distance of 94 AU from the Sun, to become the first spacecraft to explore the termination shock region and to enter the heliosheath, the final heliospheric frontier. By the end of 2006, Voyager 1 will be at ∼101 AU, with Voyager 2 at ∼81 AU and still approaching the termination shock. Both spacecraft have been observing the modulation of galactic and anomalous cosmic rays since their launch in 1977. The recent observations close to or inside the heliosheath have provided several interesting ‘surprises’ with subsequent theoretical and modeling challenges. Examples are: what does the modulation of galactic cosmic rays amount to in this region?; how do the anomalous cosmic rays get accelerated and modulated?; why are there ‘breaks’ in the power-law slopes of the spectra of accelerated particles? Several numerical models have been applied to most of these topics over the years and comprehensive global predictions have been made the past decade, thought to be based on reasonable assumptions about the termination shock and the heliosheath. Examples of these predictions and assumptions are concisely discussed within the context of the main observed features of cosmic rays in the vicinity of the termination shock, ending with a discussion of some of the issues and challenges to cosmic ray modeling in particular.     

The atmospheric cosmic- and solar energetic particle radiation environment at aircraft altitudes

Galactic cosmic rays interact with the solar wind, the earth's magnetic field and its atmosphere to produce hadron, lepton and photon fields at aircraft altitudes. In addition to cosmic rays, energetic particles generated by solar activity bombard the earth from time to time. These particles, while less energetic than cosmic rays, also produce radiation fields at aircraft altitudes which have qualitatively the same properties as atmospheric cosmic rays. We have used a code based on transport theory to calculate atmospheric cosmic-ray quantities and compared them with experimental data. Agreement with these data is seen to be good. We have then used this code to calculate equivalent doses to aircraft crews. We have also used the code to calculate radiation doses from several large solar energetic particle events which took place in 1989, including the very large event that occurred on September 29^th and 30^th of that year. The spectra incident on the atmosphere were determined assuming diffusive shock theory.     

Cosmic-ray modulation and the heliospheric magnetic field

The heliospheric magnetic field plays a key role in any model for the modulation of cosmic rays. It enters into all diffusion coefficients, and its magnitude, spatial gradient and direction determine drifts patterns of cosmic rays in the heliosphere. While the first axisymmetric model of E.N. Parker proved quite successful to explain in situ measurements in the ecliptic plane, new insight into the origin and the nature of the field, especially at high heliographic latitudes, has led to the development of complex fully-three-dimensional, time-dependent models. In this review, we discuss a selection of models for the heliospheric magnetic field, and discuss how some of the more recent Fisk-type models affect the modulation of cosmic rays.     

Where does the heliospheric modulation of galactic cosmic rays start?

The long outstanding question of where the heliospheric (solar) modulation of galactic cosmic rays actually begins, in terms of spatial position, as well as at what high kinetic energy, can now be answered. Both answers are possible by using the results of an advanced numerical model, together with appropriate observations. Voyager 1 has been exploring the outskirts of the heliosphere and is presently entering what can be called the very local interstellar medium. It has been generally expected, and accepted, that once the heliopause is crossed, the local interstellar spectrum (LIS) should be measured in situ by the Voyager spacecraft. However, we show that this may not be the case and that modulation effects on galactic cosmic rays can persist well beyond the heliopause. For example, proton observations at 100 MeV close to the heliopause can be lower by ∼$\sim$25% to 40% than the LIS, depending on solar modulation conditions. It is also illustrated quantitatively that significant solar modulation diminishes above ∼$\sim$50 GeV at Earth. It is found that cosmic ray observations above this energy contain less that 5%$5\%$ solar modulation effects and should therefore reflect the LIS for galactic cosmic rays. Input spectra, in other words the very LIS, for solar modulation models are now constrained by in situ observations and can therefore not any longer be treated arbitrarily. It is also possible for the first time to determine the lower limit of the very LIS from a few MeV/nuc to very high energies.     

Trapped antiprotons produced by cosmic rays in the Earth's magnetosphere.

The existence of significant fluxes of antiparticles in the Earth magnetosphere has been predicted on theoretical considerations in this article. These antiparticles (positrons or antiprotons) at several hundred kilometers of altitudes, we believe are not of direct extraterrestrial origin, but are the natural products of nuclear reactions of the high energy primary cosmic rays (CR) and trapped protons (TP) confined in the terrestrial radiation belt, with the constituents of terrestrial atmosphere. Extraterrestrial positrons and antiprotons born in nuclear reactions of the same CR particles passing through only 5-7 g/cm2 of interstellar matter, exhibit lower fluxes compared to the antiprotons born at hundreds of g/cm2 in the atmosphere, which when confined in the magnetic field of the Earth (in any other planet), get accumulated. We present the results of the computations of the antiproton fluxes at 10 MeV to several GeV energies due to CR particle interactions with the matter in the interstellar space, and also with the residual atmosphere at altitudes of approximately 1000 km over the Earth's surface. The estimates show that the magnetospheric antiproton fluxes are greater by two orders of magnitude compared to the extraterrestrial fluxes measured at energies <1-2 GeV.     

The dynamic heliosphere,solar activity,and cosmic rays

This brief review addresses the relation between solar activity, cosmic ray variations and the dynamics of the heliosphere. The global features of the heliosphere influence what happens inside its boundaries on a variety of time-scales. Galactic and anomalous cosmic rays are the messengers that convey vital information on global heliospheric changes in the manner that they respond to these changes. By observing cosmic rays over a large range of energies at Earth, and with various space detectors, a better understanding is gained about space weather and climate. The causes of the cosmic ray variability are reviewed, with emphasis on the 11-year and 22-year cycles, step modulation, charge-sign dependent modulation and particle drifts. Advances in this field are selectively discussed in the context of what still are some of the important uncertainties and outstanding issues.     

Cosmic ray reacceleration on the galactic wind termination shock

Reacceleration of cosmic rays produced by galactic sources on the galactic wind termination shock is considered. The problem of the cosmic ray spectrum continuity is investigated. Numeric results are presented and discussed. We found that a smooth spectral transition from the galactic cosmic rays to the cosmic rays reaccelerated at the galactic wind termination shock is difficult to produce, if the maximum energy of accelerated particles is the same throughout the surface of the termination shock. The possible solution of this problem is the non-spherical termination shock with different maximum energies at different places of the shock.     

Interactive database of cosmic ray anisotropy (DB-A10)

The worldwide neutron monitor network is a unique tool for obtaining with high accuracy the information on density variations, energy spectrum and anisotropy of comic rays at the Earth, outside its atmosphere and magnetosphere. These hourly averaged parameters were obtained over the whole period of cosmic ray monitoring by the ground level neutron monitor network (from 1957 till present) and are collected within the MySQL database. The Internet-project has developed for free access and supplying of cosmic ray density and anisotropy data in different formats.