SDI and the new space renaissance

This article outlines the objectives of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) Program and describes the new technologies being considered by the Program. The author puts forward the view that the SDI will yield great benefits beyond the military goals, in terms of important technological advances, stimulation of the US economy and increased national security.     

US and Soviet ballistic missile defence programmes : Implications for the 1972 ABM treaty

This article reviews the key provisions of the ABM Treaty and the major issues of interpretation which need to be resolved. The various phases of the US Strategic Defense Initiative are discussed, showing that permitted SDI research may cross over the prohibited development and testing beginning in 1988. Cooperative research with US allies is discussed in terms of the Treaty constraints. US and Soviet ballistic missile defence programmes are summarized and the major US and Soviet compliance issues, including the Krasnoyarsk radar, are reviewed. The author argues that limitations on defensive systems remain a precondition to limitations on offensive systems. The ABM Treaty should be enhanced by agreed interpretations, a separate ASAT treaty, and perhaps four amendments to the ABM Treaty.     

The USA should begin to deploy a strategic defence system

The US Secretary of Defense argues in favour of an early deployment of some elements of a Strategic Defense System. In this edited version of the Secretary's speech to the National Space Symposium, he gives evidence of Soviet military strength and strategy and explains why the SDI can be deployed now.     

从SDI计划重点的转移看固体火箭推进技术的应用前景

对美国战略防御倡议(SDI)计划的发展和调整进行了跟踪分析,以较详实的资料评价了固体火箭推进技术在该计划发展中所占有的地位和已经起到的作用,指出了它在先进的空间防御系统中的应用前景.     

Military uses of space-ballistic missile defence

Air Vice-Marshal Menaul argues that the creation of a ballistic missile defence (BMD) system — now within the state of the art — would add immeasurably to the concept of deterrence to war at any level. The reality is that space is already an arena for military operations. Through a review of the technological components and capabilities of a layered defence system as envisaged by the US Fletcher Commission, Air Vice-Marshal Menaul argues for Western support to be given to President Reagan's Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) and for Europe to begin researching the requirements for a European-based system.     

Can the demos make a difference? Prospects for participatory democracy in shaping the future course of US space exploration

US space exploration policy deliberations tend not to include citizens who lack direct, vested financial interests in the space enterprise. Could expanding the circle of US space policy development players to involve citizens more aptly serve space exploration and the interests of American democratic society in the 21st century? I evaluate the merits and feasibility of citizen participation, drawing upon democratic theory and scholarship analyzing public participation in techno-scientific matters, previous experiences of public involvement in space exploration policy formation, and reflections on my professional experiences in space policy development. I argue that public engagement will enrich the debate surrounding the US future in space and may point toward a program American citizens will support as a meaningful future in the cosmos. I suggest three guiding principles and outline four mechanisms that, if embraced by US space policy makers, could foster meaningful public participation in informing the US space exploration agenda.     

The ‘Star Wars’ initiative: Problems and prospects

This article examines the long-term ‘Star Wars’ R&D programme initiated by President Reagan - the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). The nature of this initiative and the research programme that has been approved are described. There is still considerable uncertainty over where the SDI research will eventually lead - whether it be a limited BMD system designed to protect military targets or a comprehensive shield to protect the USA and its allies. The feasibility and potential implications of the SDI are examined with this caveat in mind.     

Space station — the new frontier

The exciting challenge of building a permanent space station has been taken up by the USA, and participation in its development has been offered to the USA's allies. European countries are faced with the dilemma of whether to cooperate or to try to develop an autonomous approach. This article discusses the opportunities for Europe in participating closely in the US project — particularly in providing pressurized modules based on the Columbus programme — and argues that it is an opportunity not to be missed.     

A European military space community: Reality or dream?

Europe is faced with several essential policy decisions with regard to the exploitation of space technology. Important issues are: the relations between civilian and military uses of outer space, employment opportunities, industrial and commercial interests, European security and international stability, regional and international cooperation. Concerted action is required for political reasons and in order to achieve the necessary scientific, technological and economic critical masses. Another major policy issue is, therefore, whether Europe should expand its space venture in the framework of a European military space community as proposed by France, through national or bilateral programmes, by participating in the US SDI research, or through NATO, the Independent European Programme Group, the Western European Union, or the European Space Agency.     

The applicability of expert systems to a space-based defensive shield

The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was orginally intended to reduce the level of nuclear forces and strengthen deterrence. Since SDI was first proposed, a wide ranging debate ensued as to the probable cost, technical feasibility and moral implications of the program. This paper examines the evidence to determine if the advanced computing methods needed to control a space-based defensive system like SDI would be capable of fulfilling its purpose. The outcome of this discussion is that a defensive shield would not achieve the stated purpose and would likely increase the chances of nuclear war.     

Large-scale military funding induces culture clash

Mission-oriented research shifts the assessment of research products and potential from scientists to external factors. This is the point of mission funding, but it introduces what the author calls ‘epistemic drift’, which is part of a more general clash between different value systems and cultures. The culture clash between the military and industry has led to a shift in debate from spin-off to dual-use technologies. Similar conflicts and tensions are introduced into the university research system by large-scale mission funding such as that of SDI, and it is imperative that universities establish a strong civilian base for fundamental research funding instead of lobbying for military support.     

Creating a productive international partnership in the Vision for Space Exploration

When US President George W. Bush on 14 January 2004 announced a new US “Vision for Space Exploration”, he called for international participation in “a journey, not a race”, a call received with skepticism and concern elsewhere. But, after a slow start in implementing this directive, during 2006 NASA has increased the forward momentum of action on the program and of discussions on international cooperation in exploring “the Moon, Mars, and beyond”. There are nevertheless a number of significant top-level issues that must be addressed if a cooperative approach to human space exploration is to be pursued. These include the relationship between utilization of the ISS and the lunar exploration plans, integration of potential partners’ current and future capabilities into the exploration plans, and the evolving space-related intentions of other countries.     

浅议上市公司利用关联方交易操纵收益的现象

本文拟从取得上市资格、提高发行价格、取得配股或增发新股资格、避免股票被摘牌四个方面，分析了我国上市公司通过关联方交易进行收益操纵的目的，列举了上市公司通过关联方交易进行收益操纵的具体做法，并提出若干建议。     

Whose jurisdiction over the US commercial satellite industry? Factors affecting international security and competition

Within a global economy, export controls play a large role in hindering the proliferation of high technology. A company operating in a country that operates under more strict export controls than others is at a serious disadvantage in competing. This has been the case for commercial satellite (comsat) manufacturers in the USA since 1999, when Congress redefined comsats and all technologies associated with them from a dual-use export under the jurisdiction of the Department of Commerce to a munitions export that falls under the jurisdiction of the Department of State. Following this, there was a drastic drop in the market share of US comsat manufacturers in comparison to European manufacturers, who continued to define satellites as a dual-use technology. This paper examines the various factors that have affected US industry competitiveness and tackles the question of whether or not it continues to make sense to keep comsats under the more restrictive International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) controls. To accomplish this, comsats are subjected to a litmus test created by George Zaphiriou in 1992 to determine whether a technology should be placed under ITAR controls.     

地面寿命试验中离子推力器表面的溅射沉积量计算

有效降低溅射沉积影响是离子推力器地面寿命试验需要解决的重要技术问题。文章建立了真空舱壁上溅射物沉积到离子推力器表面的计算模型。应用该模型计算了LIPS-200推力器在TS-7真空舱中进行寿命试验的背溅射沉积情况,对钛（Ti）材料和石墨（C）材料内衬,背溅射沉积量分别为0.79 μm/kh和0.20 μm/kh。对比美国NSTAR和NEXT离子推力器寿命试验中的背溅射沉积量测量数据,文章中的计算结果表明,LIPS-200推力器的表面沉积污染在可接受的范围。     

Star wars brought to earth

This article considers the thinking behind, and the ramifications of, President Reagan's Star Wars ‘vision’. The author argues that the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) is incompatible with other aspects of the Reagan administration's own defence policies and that the ‘security shield’ version of it would make future US-Soviet arms agreements impossible. Only the so-called ‘prudent hedge’ research looks viable in the longer term. The SDI's main value will have been in bringing the USSR back to the negotiating table.     

发展X-37B空间飞机的背后动因分析

文章通过对X-37B飞行器的飞行试验任务分析,指出了X-37B飞行器不是空天飞机,也不是全球快速打击平台,而是一种低成本太空进入能力的飞行验证器,它的作用定位在空间而不是在空中。通过飞行试验和验证试验,旨在打造一个可重复使用的轨道转移运载器。将美国2010年航天战略的重大调整、国际空间站的运行延期和航天飞机退役等事件结合起来,对X-37B发展的背后动因进行分析,有助于了解美国航天发展的未来趋势。经过动因的详尽分析,指出要特别关注美国航天战略调整的两个重心转向,尤其是两个转向背后的动机。如何正确地认识国际空间站的作用定位,对于审视载人航天的未来发展有重要意义。美国航天战略的调整使载人航天的重心回到近地轨道上。基于中国目前的能力现实,建议中国的载人航天重心放在地球轨道上,做好各种能力的建设,并利用这些能力把地球轨道上的事做得更好。     

Change and continuity in US space policy

2010 saw both the unveiling of a new US National Space Policy and the announcement of a fundamentally different strategy for US human spaceflight that would move from the NASA-government-led Apollo-style approach to a greater reliance on the private sector and international cooperation. This viewpoint puts forward arguments on why change in the US approach to human spaceflight is needed, while acknowledging that achieving it in the face of vested interests and threats to jobs and livelihoods is extremely difficult. It suggests that greater US recognition of the need to ensure the sustainability of space activity (by addressing debris, radio-frequency interference and potential deliberate disruption of spacecraft), and an apparent willingness to countenance international norms to govern space activities, could be the new policy’s most lasting heritage.     

European space research in support of international partnership

The envisaged future space research programmes, whether in the field of space exploration or Earth observation are becoming more and more technically complicated and so costly that a single nation can hardly afford to realize them. Major non-European space-faring nations, China and India will progressively play an important role besides US, Russia and Japan. The Space Advisory Group of the European Commission recommended that the European Commission supports within Horizon 2020 a comprehensive Robotic Mars-Exploration Programme under European leadership that should become an essential element of a coordinated international space research programme. The International Space Station (ISS) experience shows that cooperative space programmes build links between industries and laboratories from around the world, which then further develop in non-space related activities, with positive impact on the economy and scientific research. Strategies need to be developed to mitigate the gradual increasing risks incurred by climate change. In order to lower their entry barrier to engage in space emerging and developing space nations need to be included in cooperative space programmes. We present the recommendations of the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission concerning Europe's participation to global space endeavours.     

Potential evolution of an international moon base programme

The Moon is a major target in expanding human activity in Space. President Bush has called for a Space Exploration Initiative. European participation may depend on achieving an affordable programme and identifying distinct elements for non-U.S. participation. Affordability requires that all participants can influence the “cost to user” of Base operations. If lunar activity is to evolve towards resource exploitation, there will need to be a progressive reduction in operating costs. European interest would prefer participation that allowed longer-term independent interests. The paper addresses how non-U.S. agencies could contribute valuable elements to an International Moon Base while meeting three criteria:

• — Keep a core infrastructure under U.S. control.

• — Avoid a total reliance by the partner on U.S. services.

• — Allow the partner to evolve towards an eventual, semi-autonomous or autonomous capability.

The paper illustrates possible implications of meeting these constraints through “mini infrastructures” combining several elements to form a working architecture. It is concluded that any European participation in an International Moon Base Programme should contain both Space transport and surface elements.