Present status and new trends in scientific ballooning in India

The efforts in scientific ballooning in India have always been focussed towards continuous upgrading of capabilities in all aspects of balloon flights - balloon material, balloon fabrication, launch techniques, heavy payload launch, telemetry, telecommand and other ground facilities - to meet the growing demands of the scientific community. A brief account of recent progress in several of these aspects and future plans for further improvements in scientific ballooning capability is presented.     

Hardware qualification for scientific ballooning missions

The European Stratospheric Balloon Observatory (ESBO) initiative aims at simplifying the access to stratospheric balloon missions. We plan to provide platforms and support with instrument design in order to support scientists. During the design process, the inevitable question of qualification for the harsh flight conditions arises. Unfortunately, there is no existing standard for qualification of stratospheric ballooning hardware. Thus, we developed a qualification procedure for use within ESBO and similar projects.In this paper, we present our analysis of the environmental conditions in the stratosphere. While conditions at typical balloon float altitudes are similar to the space environment, there are also some relevant differences. For example, the thermal environment is dominated by radiation and thermal conduction, but the remaining atmosphere still supports a certain amount of convection. The remaining atmospheric pressure in the stratosphere also leads to reduced arcing distances. Vibrational loads are far less than for space missions, but quasi-static or shock loads may occur. The criticality of radiation increases with mission duration.Based on the environmental conditions, we present the qualification procedures for ESBO, which are based on the European Cooperation for Space Standardization (ECSS) standards for space systems. Overtesting against too high requirements leads to overengineering, driving mission cost and mitigating the advantages of balloons over space missions. Therefore, we modified the ECSS standards to fit typical scientific ballooning missions over several days at altitudes up to 40 km. Furthermore, we analyzed design rules for space systems with regard to their relevance for scientific ballooning, including material and component selection. We present the experience from the hardware qualification process for the ESBO prototype STUDIO (Stratospheric UV Demonstrator of an Imaging Observatory). Even though boundary conditions are different for each individual mission, we aimed for a broader approach: We investigated more general requirements for scientific ballooning missions to support future flights.     

Scientific ballooning in Japan – An over view of recent activities

Current status of scientific ballooning in Japan is reviewed. First, I describe successful application of balloon technologies to construct a vessel of transparent plastic film, to contain about 1000 tons of liquid scintillator in Kamioka Liquid Scintillator Anti-Neutrino Detector (KamLAND). KamLAND is a project to study neutrino oscillation phenomena, by detecting anti-neutrinos produced in distant nuclear reactors. Next, I describe high altitude balloons developed by the ISAS balloon group. They developed balloons made from ultra-thin polyethylene film, producing a balloon of volume 60,000 m³ which successfully reached an altitude of 53 km in 2002. This is a world record, the greatest altitude that a balloon has ever achieved. ISAS is applying further effort to develop balloons with even thinner films, to achieve a higher altitude than 53 km. Other recent activities by the ISAS balloon group are briefly described.I also review scientific ballooning projects now operating in Japan, particularly focusing on the Balloon-Borne Experiment with a Superconducting Spectrometer (BESS) program. This is a US–Japan collaborative program that has carried out very precise measurements of antiprotons, protons and other components in primary cosmic rays, as well as measuring the fluxes of atmospheric muons and other components. The results of these observations give us important information to improve our understanding of the production mechanism of antiprotons observed in the primary cosmic rays. The data are also important for analysis of atmospheric neutrino events observed by Super-Kamiokande and other ground-based neutrino detectors. Future prospects of BESS and other balloon-borne cosmic-ray research programs are also presented.     

Experiences of the GDR in space sciences and technology

Following a historical review of the first activities of GDR scientists in the fields of space research, especially on astronomical and geodetical satellite-observations and in atmospheric and magnetospheric research, the growing scientific and increasingly efficient technological and economic benefits of the cooperation of the Academy of sciences and other scientific and technological institutions of the GDR within the Intercosmos-programme are described. Especially, the experiences in connection with remote sensing, of the cooperation with countries as Cuba and the Peoples Republic of Vietnam and of the common USSR - GDR manned spaceflight are discussed under the viewpoint of the mutual interests of developing and developed countries in the fields of space science and technology.     

Capacity building in regional space cooperation: Asia-pacific space cooperation organization

The increasing gap in the space capabilities of different countries has led to the need for capacity building in modern times. Space capacity building of countries without or with limited space capacity via international cooperation with advanced spacefaring nations is a good practice towards intragenerational equity among all spacefaring countries, and between spacefaring and non-spacefaring countries at the same period of time. A case study is used here to show the current situation of the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) and its member states that are associated with their space capacity building. The study finds that neither the satellite technology development model developed by Wood and Weigel (2011) nor the model developed by Ercan and Kale (2017) is a good fit for the development of space capability in all of the developing countries. Therefore, using the APSCO member states as a case study may offer guidelines towards the space capacity building of other developing countries. Moreover, an in-depth analysis of the merits and flaws of APSCO’s capacity building programs through comparing them with similar projects carried out by the European Space Agency (ESA), the Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) and some other countries is conducive to providing some references for regional cooperation in the field of space capacity building. While international space law and the APSCO Convention can provide the general principles for capacity building activities under the framework of APSCO, they are only relevant to the development of scientific and technological capacities for space and human resources rather than organizational development and legal frameworks. Some international soft laws can likewise provide guidance for the capacity building activities of APSCO and its member states in the areas of international direct television broadcasting, remote sensing and cooperative way. To enhance its and its member states’ space capabilities, APSCO, in the context of space commercialization and maintaining the long-term sustainability of outer space activities (LTSOSA), should establish a comprehensive internal regime that addresses scientific and technological capacity building for space, human resources, organizational development and legal frameworks, a flexible regime for international cooperation with other developed spacefaring nations and international organizations with relevant technical capabilities and an internal research center for space law, and actively expand its membership by embracing other economically or technologically developed spacefaring nations in the Asia-Pacific region.     

Starting to partner with NASA in space and Earth science

NASA research programs offer many opportunities for productive partnerships with investigators in other countries. While spacecraft projects are complex and very expensive, there are other, lower-cost partnerships that can yield important scientific results and offer excellent opportunities for building up new space and Earth science programs and for training new researchers.     

Ballooning activities in Japan

The Scientific Balloon Center of ISAS/JAXA has carried out two balloon campaigns at Sanriku, Iwate, Japan every year. Ten to twelve balloon vehicles are launched annually for scientific and engineering experiments. Since 2005, a Brazilian balloon campaign has also been conducted in cooperation with INPE. In the 2006 Brazilian campaign, large and heavy payloads up to 1500 kg for astronomy will be launched. New generation balloons, such as super-pressure balloons and high-altitude balloons with ultra-thin films, are being developed. The current status and prospect of the Japanese scientific ballooning are discussed.     

Selected examples of profitable applications of remote sensing for resources inventories and monitoring

The Remote Sensing Centre of the Institute of Geodesy and Cartography in Warsaw has been operating since 1976. It has multi-disciplinary character; carries out scientific research, elaborates technologies of remote sensing investigations, applies remote sensing methods for solving various practical problems, coordinates national activities in this field, developes and disseminates remote sensing knowledge at both national and international levels offering various types of specialized training.The authors discuss the role of remote sensing investigations in the process of development planning. Examples of projects executed at the Remote Sensing Centre and concerning topographic and land use mapping, geological investigations, agricultural crop area determination, forest research, environmental monitoring and studies of climatic conditions in urban environment are described and extensively discussed in the paper. The authors emphasize these areas of the application of remote sensing and these interpretation techniques which are of potential interest for the developing countries.     

Establishing space industry in developing countries: Opportunities and difficulties

Although it is generally agreed that the outer space should be used for the benefit of all mankind, only a fraction of the countries have the necessary technological base for accessing space. Space technology, with its implications on science, economy and well-being of citizens, is mostly chosen as one of the priority areas for technological development by developing countries. However, there is already an over-capacity in global space industry and there are doubts on necessity of additional capacity establishment by developing countries. In this study, the importance and benefits of capacity-building in these countries are emphasized and the advantages and disadvantages that developing countries have in the framework of space technology acquisition are briefly presented. The feasibility of certain levels of space technology is discussed and the necessity of combining existing indigenous capabilities with technology obtained from foreign sources in the optimal way is stressed. We have also mentioned various general mechanisms of technology transfer and argued the importance of licensing in catching-up developed countries. After considering the necessary conditions of efficiency of technology, such as establishment of regional centers of space science and technology education by United Nations, joint development of space systems, complete technology transfer packages, cooperative space projects within regional organizations, coordinated constellations and special agreements with large space agencies, which are specific mechanisms already in use, are reviewed. Some typical examples of mechanisms are also given with special emphasize on small satellite technology that makes access to space affordable for many countries. Through sharing and analyzing the experience of developing countries in their odyssey of space capacity-building, the difficulties can be negotiated and the vicious circles can be broken. This study, in our view, is a step to incite a general discussion of obstacles and opportunities for developing countries, that could help them in using their limited resources effectively, hence, enable them to offer better conditions to their citizens and to contribute space science to a larger extend.     

Evolution of scientific ballooning and its impact on astrophysics research

As we celebrate the centennial year of the discovery of cosmic rays on a manned balloon, it seems appropriate to reflect on the evolution of ballooning and its scientific impact. Balloons have been used for scientific research since they were invented in France more than 200 years ago. Ballooning was revolutionized in 1950 with the introduction of the so-called natural shape balloon with integral load tapes. This basic design has been used with more or less continuously improved materials for scientific balloon flights for more than a half century, including long-duration balloon (LDB) flights around Antarctica for the past two decades. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is currently developing the next generation super-pressure balloon that would enable extended duration missions above 99.5% of the Earth’s atmosphere at any latitude. The Astro2010 Decadal Survey report supports super-pressure balloon development and the giant step forward it offers with ultra-long-duration balloon (ULDB) flights at constant altitudes for about 100 days.     

Advances in long duration,high altitude flights

During the past two decades there have been many significant advances made in the state-of-the-art of scientific ballooning. High altitude long duration flights, of moderate to heavy payloads, however, have proven to be the one requirement of the scientific community that has been the most difficult to meet. Conventional and cryogenic ballasting systems, super pressure balloons and hybrid balloon systems are some of the approaches that have been taken to maintain experiments at altitude for extended periods of time. The results of those development efforts and various methods of data retrieval will be discussed.     

Scientific ballooning in India – Recent developments

Established in 1971, the National Balloon Facility operated by TIFR in Hyderabad, India, is a unique facility in the country, which provides a complete solution in scientific ballooning. It is also one of its kind in the world since it combines both, the in-house balloon production and a complete flight support for scientific ballooning. With a large team working through out the year to design, fabricate and launch scientific balloons, the Hyderabad Facility is a unique centre of expertise where the balloon design, research and development, the production and launch facilities are located under one roof. Our balloons are manufactured from 100% indigenous components. The mission specific balloon design, high reliability control and support instrumentation, in-house competence in tracking, telemetry, telecommand, data processing, system design and mechanics is its hallmark. In the past few years, we have executed a major programme of upgradation of different components of balloon production, telemetry and telecommand hardware and various support facilities. This paper focuses on our increased capability of balloon production of large sizes up to 780,000 m³ using Antrix film, development of high strength balloon load tapes with the breaking strength of 182 kg, and the recent introduction of S-band telemetry and a commandable timer cut-off unit in the flight hardware. A summary of the various flights conducted in recent years will be presented along with the plans for new facilities.     

一种火星多模式组合探测任务设想

针对火星探测科学发现及任务创新需求,探索更先进的探测模式,提出了一种火星多模式组合探测任务设想。该任务设想的特点在于结合了轨道环绕、表面着陆、多点穿透和浮空探测,获取立体多层多源信息,一次任务实现深度科学探测。对火星开展多模式组合探测,不仅会开拓更加具有优势的火星探测新方式,发展新的探测能力和技术,也会加深对火星的全面了解,提高探测活动的综合效果。多模式探测设想不仅适用于火星,对金星、土星等地外天体探测也有很好的支撑作用。     

Scientific ballooning in Japan

Activities in scientific ballooning in Japan during 1998–1999 are reported. The total number of scientific balloons flown in Japan in 1998 and 1999 was sixteen, eight flights in each year. The scientific objectives were observations of high energy cosmic electrons, air samplings at various altitudes, monitoring of atmospheric ozone density, Galactic infrared observations, and test flights of new type balloons. Balloon expeditions were conducted in Antarctica by the National Institute of Polar Research, in Russia, in Canada and in India in collaboration with foreign countries' institutes to investigate cosmic rays, Galactic infrared radiation, and Earth's atmosphere. There were three flights in Antarctica, four flights in Russia, three flights in Canada and two flights in India. Four test balloons were flown for balloon technology, which included pumpkin-type super-pressure balloon and a balloon made with ultra-thin polyethylene film of 3.4 μm thickness.     

和平利用空间技术国际合作的现状和前景

本文较详细地介绍了当前应用最广和最成熟的三种空间技术:电信、气象、遥感领域中的国际合作的现状和发展趋势;并指出发展中国家在其现有的科技基础上,通过国际合作,培养一批空间技术和管理人才,配以适当的地面设施,就可获取空间技术所能带来的利益。     

Long duration balloon flights: A probe for deep hard X-ray astronomy investigation

In this note the state of the art of our knowledge of the high energy sky will be reviewed, with particular regard to the hard X-ray range.The use of more complex and sophisticated payloads that is necessary to obtain up-to-date results mandatory to achieve a better understanding of the actual scenario in the range 15–300 keV, causes new continuous requirements for long duration balloon flights.The needs for astronomy oriented scientific ballooning will be considered and discussed.     

Space Materials Science in China: II. Ground-based Researches and Academic Activities

Activities of space materials science research in China have been continuously supported by two main national programs. One is the China Space Station (CSS) program since 1992, and the other is the Strategic Priority Program (SPP) on Space Science since 2011. In CSS plan in 2019, eleven space materials science experimental projects were officially approved for execution during the construction of the space station. In the SPP Phase II launched in 2018, seven pre-research projects are deployed as the first batch in 2018, and one concept study project in 2019. These pre-research projects will be cultivated as candidates for future selection as space experiment projects on the recovery of scientific experimental satellites in the future. A new apparatus of electrostatic levitation system for ground-based research of space materials science and rapid solidification research has been developed under the support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China. In order to promote domestic academic activities and to enhance the advancement of space materials science in China, the Space Materials Science and Technology Division belong to the Chinese Materials Research Society was established in 2019. We also organized scientists to write five review papers on space materials science as a special topic published in the journal Scientia Sinica to provide valuable scientific and technical references for Chinese researchers.      

Transfer of space science and technology: A third world point of view

In contrast to the more common discussions on the how, where and when of transfer of space science and technology, we open a general discussion on the consequences of the space era in the developing countries and draw attention to the fact that space science and technology create a scientific and economic dependence on the industrially developed countries. Recommendations are made to render the space programs more beneficial to the Third World. These include : formation of local groups of high level space scientists and experts; instead of sophisticated transferred technology the use of space technologies appropriate to local economic and social status; services to the poorest fraction of the population and educational programs that protect the indigenous cultures.     

Toward a global space exploration program: A stepping stone approach

In response to the growing importance of space exploration in future planning, the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) Panel on Exploration (PEX) was chartered to provide independent scientific advice to support the development of exploration programs and to safeguard the potential scientific assets of solar system objects. In this report, PEX elaborates a stepwise approach to achieve a new level of space cooperation that can help develop world-wide capabilities in space science and exploration and support a transition that will lead to a global space exploration program. The proposed stepping stones are intended to transcend cross-cultural barriers, leading to the development of technical interfaces and shared legal frameworks and fostering coordination and cooperation on a broad front. Input for this report was drawn from expertise provided by COSPAR Associates within the international community and via the contacts they maintain in various scientific entities. The report provides a summary and synthesis of science roadmaps and recommendations for planetary exploration produced by many national and international working groups, aiming to encourage and exploit synergies among similar programs. While science and technology represent the core and, often, the drivers for space exploration, several other disciplines and their stakeholders (Earth science, space law, and others) should be more robustly interlinked and involved than they have been to date. The report argues that a shared vision is crucial to this linkage, and to providing a direction that enables new countries and stakeholders to join and engage in the overall space exploration effort. Building a basic space technology capacity within a wider range of countries, ensuring new actors in space act responsibly, and increasing public awareness and engagement are concrete steps that can provide a broader interest in space exploration, worldwide, and build a solid basis for program sustainability. By engaging developing countries and emerging space nations in an international space exploration program, it will be possible to create a critical bottom-up support structure to support program continuity in the development and execution of future global space exploration frameworks. With a focus on stepping stones, COSPAR can support a global space exploration program that stimulates scientists in current and emerging spacefaring nations, and that will invite those in developing countries to participate—pursuing research aimed at answering outstanding questions about the origins and evolution of our solar system and life on Earth (and possibly elsewhere). COSPAR, in cooperation with national and international science foundations and space-related organizations, will advocate this stepping stone approach to enhance future cooperative space exploration efforts.     

Feasibility studies of “polar patrol balloon”

Engineering and meteorological feasibilities of a circum-south-polar ballooning project, called “Polar Patrol Balloon (PPB)”, for space and geophysical researches are studied. We plan to use zero-pressure balloons mounting an auto-ballasting system, utilizing the non-sunset condition in mid-summer. PPB will be launced to a level higher than 30 km from an observational base in the Antarctica and come back there by a circumpolar wind. It is predicted that the circumpolar period may be a few weeks in the case of mid-summer 30 km-level flight and its meridional deviation after a circumpolar flight may be within a few hundreds kilometers. We have tested auto-ballasting and ARGOS-tracking, and are developing some on-board data accumulation systems and power supply. If we can collaborate with foreign bases, results of PPB should be much more successful especially concerning simultaneous observations at various latitudes.