Damage escape and repair in dried Chroococcidiopsis spp. from hot and cold deserts exposed to simulated space and martian conditions

The cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis, overlain by 3?mm of Antarctic sandstone, was exposed as dried multilayers to simulated space and martian conditions. Ground-based experiments were conducted in the context of Lichens and Fungi Experiments (EXPOSE-E mission, European Space Agency), which were performed to evaluate, after 1.5 years on the International Space Station, the survival of cyanobacteria (Chroococcidiopsis), lichens, and fungi colonized on Antarctic rock. The survival potential and the role played by protection and repair mechanisms in the response of dried Chroococcidiopsis cells to ground-based experiments were both investigated. Different methods were employed, including evaluation of the colony-forming ability, single-cell analysis of subcellular integrities based on membrane integrity molecular and redox probes, evaluation of the photosynthetic pigment autofluorescence, and assessment of the genomic DNA integrity with a PCR-based assay. Desiccation survivors of strain CCMEE 123 (coastal desert, Chile) were better suited than CCMEE 134 (Beacon Valley, Antarctica) to withstand cellular damage imposed by simulated space and martian conditions. Exposed dried cells of strain CCMEE 123 formed colonies, maintained subcellular integrities, and, depending on the exposure conditions, also escaped DNA damage or repaired the induced damage upon rewetting.     

Effects of a simulated martian UV flux on the cyanobacterium, Chroococcidiopsis sp. 029

Dried monolayers of Chroococcidiopsis sp. 029, a desiccation-tolerant, endolithic cyanobacterium, were exposed to a simulated martian-surface UV and visible light flux, which may also approximate to the worst-case scenario for the Archean Earth. After 5 min, there was a 99% loss of cell viability, and there were no survivors after 30 min. However, this survival was approximately 10 times higher than that previously reported for Bacillus subtilis. We show that under 1 mm of rock, Chroococcidiopsis sp. could survive (and potentially grow) under the high martian UV flux if water and nutrient requirements for growth were met. In isolated cells, phycobilisomes and esterases remained intact hours after viability was lost. Esterase activity was reduced by 99% after a 1-h exposure, while 99% loss of autofluorescence required a 4-h exposure. However, cell morphology was not changed, and DNA was still detectable by 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining after an 8-h exposure (equivalent to approximately 1 day on Mars at the equator). Under 1 mm of simulant martian soil or gneiss, the effect of UV radiation could not be detected on esterase activity or autofluorescence after 4 h. These results show that under the intense martian UV flux the morphological signatures of life can persist even after viability, enzymatic activity, and pigmentation have been destroyed. Finally, the global dispersal of viable, isolated cells of even this desiccation-tolerant, ionizing-radiation-resistant microorganism on Mars is unlikely as they are killed quickly by unattenuated UV radiation when in a desiccated state. These findings have implications for the survival of diverse microbial contaminants dispersed during the course of human exploratory class missions on the surface of Mars.     

The role of cytoskeleton in cell changes under condition of simulated microgravity

Single cells and cell culture are very good model for estimation of primary effects of gravitational changes. It is suggested that cell cytoskeleton plays a key role in mechanisms of adaptation to mechanical influences including gravitational ones. Our results demonstrated that cultured cells of human vascular endothelium (correction of endotheliun) are highly sensitive to hypogravity (clinorotation) and respond by significant decrease of cell proliferative activity. Simultaneously it was noted that the formation of confluent monolayer appeared early in cultures exposed to simulated microgravity due to accelerated cells spreading. Long-term hypogravity (several hours or days) leads to significant changes of cell cytoskeleton revealed as microfilament thinning and their redistribution within cell. Such changes were observed only in monolayer cells and not in cell suspensions. Gravitational forces as known to be modificators of cell adhesive ability and determine their mobility. Hypogravity environment stimulated endothelial cell migration in culture: 24-48 hrs pre-exposition to hypogravity significantly increased endothelial cell migration resulting in 2-3-fold acceleration of mechanically injured monolayer repair. Obtained results suggest that the effects of hypogravity on cultured human endothelial cells are, possibly, associated with protein kinase C and/or adenylate cyclase activity and are accompanied by noticeable functional cell changes.     

Rosetta: The ESA comet rendezvous mission

Rosetta was selected in November 1993 for the ESA Cornerstone 3 mission, to be launched in 2003, dedicated to the exploration of the small bodies of the solar system (asteroids and comets). Following this selection, the Rosetta mission and its spacecraft have been completely reviewed: this paper presents the studies performed the proposed mission and the resulting spacecraft design.

Three mission opportunities have been identified in 2003–2004, allowing rendezvous with a comet. From a single Ariane 5 launch, the transfer to the comet orbit will be supported by planetary gravity assists (two from Earth, one from Venus or Mars); during the transfer sequence, two asteroid fly-bys will occur, allowing first mission science phases. The comet rendezvous will occur 8–9 years after launch; Rosetta will orbit around the comet and the main science mission phase will take place up to the comet perihelion (1–2 years duration).

The spacecraft design is driven (i) by the communication scenario with the Earth and its equipment, (ii) by the autonomy requirements for the long cruise phases which are not supported by the ground stations, (iii) by the solar cells solar array for the electrical power supply and (iv) by the navigation scenario and sensors for cruise, target approach and rendezvous phases. These requirements will be developed and the satellite design will be presented.     

Space radiation effects on plant and mammalian cells

The study of the effects of ionizing radiation on organisms is related to different research aims. The current review emphasizes the studies on the effects of different doses of sparsely and densely ionizing radiation on living organisms, with the final purpose of highlighting specific and common effects of space radiation in mammals and plants. This topic is extremely relevant in the context of radiation protection from space environment. The response of different organisms to ionizing radiation depends on the radiation quality/dose and/or the intrinsic characteristics of the living system. Macromolecules, in particular DNA, are the critical targets of radiation, even if there is a strong difference between damages encountered by plant and mammalian cells. The differences in structure and metabolism between the two cell types are responsible for the higher resistance of the plant cell compared with its animal counterpart.     

球形弹丸高速撞击航天器防护结构的数值模拟分析

给出了空间碎片超高速撞击航天器双层防护结构模型，采用非线性有限元方法中的光滑粒子流体动力算法，计算了球形弹丸对航天器双层防护墙结构超高速撞击过程，获得了弹丸穿过第一层防护墙后，碎裂形成颗粒云团及其对第二层防护墙的损伤效应。计算结果表明多层防护墙结构能够有效地缓减高速空间碎片对航天器的破坏作用。     

Spaceflight and clinorotation cause cytoskeleton and mitochondria changes and increases in apoptosis in cultured cells.

The cytoskeleton is a complex network of fibers that is sensitive to environmental factors including microgravity and altered gravitational forces. Cellular functions such as transport of cell organelles depend on cytoskeletal integrity; regulation of cytoskeletal activity plays a role in cell maintenance, cell division, and apoptosis. Here we report cytoskeletal and mitochondria alterations in cultured human lymphocyte (Jurkat) cells after exposure to spaceflight and in insect cells of Drosophila melanogaster (Schneider S-1) after exposure to conditions created by clinostat rotation. Jurkat cells were flown on the space shuttle in Biorack cassettes while Schneider S-1 cells were exposed to altered gravity forces as produced by clinostat rotation. The effects of both treatments were similar in the different cell types. Fifty percent of cells displayed effects on the microtubule network in both cell lines. Under these experimental conditions mitochondria clustering and morphological alterations of mitochondrial cristae was observed to various degrees after 4 and 48 hours of culture. Jurkat cells underwent cell divisions during exposure to spaceflight but a large number of apoptotic cells was also observed. Similar results were obtained in Schneider S-1 cells cultured under clinostat rotation. Both cell lines displayed mitochondria abnormalities and mitochondria clustering toward one side of the cells which is interpreted to be the result of microtubule disruption and failure of mitochondria transport along microtubules. The number of mitochondria was increased in cells exposed to altered gravity while cristae morphology was severely affected indicating altered mitochondria function. These results show that spaceflight as well as altered gravity produced by clinostat rotation affects microtubule and mitochondria organization and results in increases in apoptosis. Grant numbers: NAG 10-0224, NAG2-985.     

Can ultrasound counteract bone loss? Effect of low-intensity ultrasound stimulation on a model of osteoclastic precursor

The aim of the present work is to determine whether mechanical stress caused by ultrasound (US) exposure affects osteoclastic precursor cells, thus addressing the hypothesis that mechanical strain-induced perturbation of preosteoclastic cell machinery can contribute to the occurrence of bone turnover alterations. Moreover, cell cytoskeleton was studied because of its supposed involvement in cell mechanotransduction.Our experimental model was the FLG 29.1 human cell line, previously characterized as an osteoclastic precursor model. Cell proliferation was quantified by trypan blue exclusion assay. Cell morpho-functional state was monitored by multispectral imaging autofluorescence microscopy. The expression of cytoskeletal components and markers of proliferation (Ki67) and osteoclastic differentiation (RANK) was analysed by immunocytochemistry.The findings demonstrated that US stimulation affects FLG 29.1 cell growth, depresses the expression of cytoskeletal components and markers of proliferation and differentiation, induces cell damage, thus supporting the hypothesis that US exposure inhibits osteoclastogenesis.These results have been compared with those obtained previously by exposure of FLG 29.1 cells to modelled hypogravity conditions. Finally, the possibility to utilize US stimulation for counteracting osteoporosis has been discussed.     

Changes in chromatin and nucleic acids in rat tissues after two-week spaceflight

The quantitative changes in nucleic acids and chromatin breakdown were followed in blood, thymus and spleen in rats after 14 day flights on board the biosatellites Cosmos-1887 and Cosmos-2044. Quantitative nucleic acid changes within 8-11 h after landing were only mild, most statistically non-significant. An analysis at 48 h after landing showed a marked decrease in a total content of DNA and RNA in spleen and thymus. Within 8-11 h after landing, the symptoms of chromatin breakdown were found as is seen in an increased concentration of its fragments-polydeoxyribonucleotides. The obtained results show that a partial adaptation to microgravity occurs up to flight day 14 in lymphoid organs. Adaptation is accompanied with a reappearing of the sensitive cells. Their chromatin breaks down, then, in a final phase of flight due to hypergravity stress manifesting itself by a temporary increase in polydeoxyribonucleotide concentration several hours after landing. The results are discussed in relation to the changes in chosen parameters after shorter or more prolonged flights.     

Fourth John V. Breakwell memorial lecture the use of earth-return trajectories for missions to comets

The concept of using Earth-return trajectories in connection with missions to comets was originally proposed in 1972. Papers published in the 1970's and 1980's showed that by using multiple Earth-to-Earth transfers, it was possible to construct a trajectory that would encounter several comets. This technique was used for the first time by ESA's Giotto spacecraft. Following its encounter with Halley's comet in March 1986, Giotto used a single Earth gravity-assist maneuver to intercept comet Grigg-Skjellerup in July 1992. Japan's Sakigake spacecraft tried to use Earth gravity-assist maneuvers to reach comet Honda-Mrkos-Pajdusakova in 1996, but was not successful. Earth-return trajectories are essential elements of two Discovery-class missions to comets; Stardust, and the Comet Nucleus Tour (CONTOUR). The Stardust mission will be launched in February 1999, and will return dust samples collected from comet Wild-2 to the Earth in 2006. CONTOUR is scheduled for a launch in June 2002, and will use six Earth gravity-assist maneuvers to carry out three comet encounters: Encke in 2003; Schwassmann-Wachmann-3 in 2006; and d'Arrest in 2008. An extended-mission scenario would allow CONTOUR to accomplish two additional encounters: Tempel-2 in 2015, and Encke for a second time in 2023.     

Induction of vascular endothelial phenotype and cellular proliferation from human cord blood stem cells cultured in simulated microgravity

Recent studies have demonstrated that stem cells derived from adult hematopoietic tissues are capable of trans-differentiation into non-hematopoietic cells, and that the culture in microgravity (microg) may modulate the proliferation and differentiation. We investigated the application of microg to human umbilical cord blood stem cells (CBSC) in the induction of vascular endothelial phenotype expression and cellular proliferation. CD34+ mononuclear cells were isolated from waste human umbilical cord blood samples and cultured in simulated microg for 14 days. The cells were seeded in rotary wall vessels (RWV) with or without microcarrier beads (MCB) and vascular endothelial growth factor was added during culture. Controls consisted of culture in 1 G. The cell cultures in RWV were examined by inverted microscopy. Cell counts, endothelial cell and leukocyte markers performed by flow cytometry and FACS scan were assayed at days 1, 4, 7 and at the termination of the experiments. Culture in RWV revealed significantly increased cellular proliferation with three-dimensional (3D) tissue-like aggregates. At day 4, CD34+ cells cultured in RWV bioreactor without MCB developed vascular tubular assemblies and exhibited endothelial phenotypic markers. These data suggest that CD34+ human umbilical cord blood progenitors are capable of trans-differentiation into vascular endothelial cell phenotype and assemble into 3D tissue structures. Culture of CBSC in simulated microg may be potentially beneficial in the fields of stem cell biology and somatic cell therapy.     

固体发动机药柱损伤粘弹有限元分析

基于损伤的粘弹性材料积分蠕变型本构关系，建立了求解应力应变和损伤变量的一种新型增量型有限元法，引用当量应力，可以分析三维损伤场，采用迭代法求解相互耦合的应力和损伤场。算例分析表明，所建立的方法对分析药柱损伤有效、可靠。     

胶接法修补固体发动机药柱裂纹技术

使用胶粘剂对固体发动机药柱裂纹实施修补,通过单向拉伸试验测定修补区域药柱的力学性能来验证修补的有效性,并使用高温加速老化预测药柱修补区域的贮存寿命;进行了发动机药柱结构完整性分析,比照试验数据和理论计算结果,证明胶接法可对发动机药柱裂纹实施有效修补。     

Mechanisms of spinal motoneurons survival in rats under simulated hypogravity on earth

It was previously shown that different cell types in vivo and in vitro may die via apoptosis under weightlessness conditions in space as well as in simulated hypogravity on the Earth. We assessed survivability of spinal motoneurons of rats after 35-day antiorthostatic hind limb suspension. Following weight bearing, unloading the total protein content in lumbar spinal cord is dropped by 21%. The electrophysiological studies of m. gastrocnemius revealed an elevated motoneurons’ reflex excitability and conduction disturbances in the sciatic nerve axons. The number of myelinated fibers in the ventral root of experimental animals was insignificantly increased by 35-day of antiorthostatic hind limb suspension, although the retrograde axonal transport was significantly decreased during the first week of simulated hypogravity. The results of the immunohistochemical assay with antibodies against proapoptotic protein caspase 9 and cytotoxicity marker neuron specific nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and the TUNEL staining did not reveal any signs of apoptosis in motoneurons of suspended and control animals. To examine the possible adaptation mechanisms activated in motoneurons in response to simulated hypogravity we investigated immunoexpression of Hsp25 and Hsp70 in lumbar spinal cord of the rats after 35-day antiorthostatic hind limb suspension. Comparative analysis of the immunohistochemical reaction with anti-Hsp25 antibodies revealed differential staining of motoneurons in intact and experimental animals. The density of immunoprecipitate with anti-Hsp25 antibodies was substantially higher in motoneurons of the 35-day suspended than control rats and the more intensive precipitate in this reaction was observed in motoneuron neuritis. Quantitative analysis of Hsp25 expression demonstrated an increase in the Hsp25 level by 95% in experimental rats compared to the control. The immunoexpression of Hsp70 found no qualitative and quantitative differences in control and experimental lumbar spinal cords. Taken together our results show that (1) rat motoneurons survived after 35-day antiorthostatic hind limb suspension and the changes in neurons had a mostly functional character, and (2) the increased immunoexpression of Hsp25 can be considered as the anti-apoptotic factor.     

固体火箭发动机药柱裂纹灌浆修补技术研究

采用灌浆修补技术对固体火箭发动机药柱裂纹进行了修补,对修补区域药柱的力学性能、能量特性和燃烧性能进行了测试试验,并对发动机修补端面燃面推移规律和发动机内弹道进行了仿真,分析了发动机和修补区域的结构完整性。试验和计算结果表明,发动机装药裂纹灌浆修补法有效。     

Implications of subzero metabolic activity on long-term microbial survival in terrestrial and extraterrestrial permafrost

The survival of microorganisms over extended time frames in frozen subsurface environments may be limited by chemical (i.e., via hydrolysis and oxidation) and ionizing radiation-induced damage to chromosomal DNA. In an effort to improve estimates for the survival of bacteria in icy terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments, we determined rates of macromolecular synthesis at temperatures down to -15°C in bacteria isolated from Siberian permafrost (Psychrobacter cryohalolentis K5 and P. arcticus 273-4) and the sensitivity of P. cryohalolentis to ionizing radiation. Based on experiments conducted over ≈400 days at -15°C, the rates of protein and DNA synthesis in P. cryohalolentis were <1 to 16 proteins cell(-1) d(-1) and 83 to 150 base pairs (bp) cell(-1) d(-1), respectively; P. arcticus synthesized DNA at rates of 20 to 1625?bp cell(-1) d(-1) at -15°C under the conditions tested. The dose of ionizing radiation at which 37% of the cells survive (D(37)) of frozen suspensions of P. cryohalolentis was 136?Gy, which was ～2-fold higher (71?Gy) than identical samples exposed as liquid suspensions. Laboratory measurements of [(3)H]thymidine incorporation demonstrate the physiological potential for DNA metabolism at -15°C and suggest a sufficient activity is possible to offset chromosomal damage incurred in near-subsurface terrestrial and martian permafrost. Thus, our data imply that the longevity of microorganisms actively metabolizing within permafrost environments is not constrained by chromosomal DNA damage resulting from ionizing radiation or entropic degradation over geological time.     

MEO轨道辐射环境对Si太阳电池影响研究

研究MEO轨道Si太阳电池在轨性能衰减规律,为太阳阵设计提供参考依据。利用位移损伤剂 量的方法,研究了电子辐照对Si太阳电池性能参数的影响,并分析了MEO轨道（高度20,000 km, 倾角56°）的电子和质子辐射环境,及其穿过不同厚度的石英玻璃盖片后的 衰减谱。研究发现,在没有玻璃盖片的情况下,MEO轨道一年期质子通量会造成电池最大输 出功率严重衰退,约为初始值的28％,而一年期电子通量影响很小,仅造成约7％的下降。 使用100μm的石英玻璃盖片几乎可以完全阻挡MEO轨道质子辐射的影响,但是对电子辐 射的阻挡作用很小。石英玻璃盖片对于屏蔽低能质子对电池辐照损伤是极其重要的。
     

三结砷化镓太阳电池真空连续激光损伤效应

采用1 315 nm波长连续激光,在真空环境下辐照三结砷化镓太阳电池,通过对比辐照前后电池IV、QE等表征数据,研究三结砷化镓太阳电池的损伤效应,并对其损伤机理进行分析。结果表明:当激光功率密度为8 W/cm~2、辐照时间为60 s时,三结砷化镓太阳电池辐照后电性能下降显著,转化效率衰降超过70%。损伤机理是在热损伤与应力损伤的综合作用下,引起电池串联电阻(R_s)、并联电阻(R_(sh))的恶化,且Rsh是衡量电池损坏的关键指标。该结果可以为三结砷化镓太阳电池在激光损伤机理与无线能量传输方面的研究提供一定的参考。     

基于超声速汽液两相流液化装置的排气液化循环方案

构造了基于超声速汽液两相流液化装置的涡轮排气液化循环发动机系统方案,对性能进行了分析、计算。结果表明：该方案可将燃烧室压力提高至35 MPa,氢主涡轮泵出口压力降低40.4%,燃气发生器室压降低38%,发动机比冲提高50.9 m/s,同时水液膜可发挥较好的热防护作用,系统冷却安全、可靠。     

航天器自主任务规划修复技术研究进展

结合航天器自主能力发展的迫切需求，阐述了航天器自主任务规划修复的必要性和难点。给出了航天器自主任务规划修复技术、航天器任务规划稳定性和规划修复问题的定义。根据规划执行失败时采用的修复策略，将自主任务规划修复技术分为规则匹配型、局部调整型、删除/求精型、状态转移型和构造新问题型五类。重点归纳了各类自主任务规划修复技术的研究进展和特点，分析了规划稳定性的定量评价方法。并在对目前任务规划修复方法总结分析的基础上，给出了未来航天器自主任务规划修复技术的研究方向建议。