植物细胞响应重力变化的Ca2+信号

重力大小的改变(微重力和超重力)可以对植物的生长发育、生理生化特性、细胞超微结构、基因和蛋白的表达等产生广泛的影响,而Ca~(2+)可能在此过程中起信号物质的作用.重力刺激在植物细胞中引发事件的顺序可能是:重力刺激的感受—细胞膜系统张力改变—膜理化特性改变—膜透性、离子转运、膜连接酶活性等改变—Ca~(2+)信号的产生和转导—新陈代谢变化—生理反应.植物对重力水平变化应激响应的至关重要一步是引起细胞内Ca~(2+)分布区域和浓度的变化,这是将细胞外重力刺激转换为细胞内化学信号的关键步骤.由于机械力敏感的C~(2+)通道的活化和Ca~(2+)-ATPase酶活性受到抑制,重力改变时细胞质中自由Ca~(2+)浓度增加,随后Ca~(2+)作为第二信使介导相关酶活性发生改变,最终引起一连串的生理生化反应.本文探讨了重力变化对植物细胞质内自由Ca~(2+)浓度的影响、Ca~(2+)信号的产生机制.以及Ca~(2+)作为次级信号对细胞生理生化过程调节作用的途径和机制,介绍了常用的Ca~(2+)研究方法,并分析了研究的关键点和难点.     

三维回转器回旋条件下拟南芥种子发育分析

向重力性反应是植物适应地球重力环境的一个重要生理过程, 是植物正常生长发育不可缺少的反应机制, 但是, 微重力是否影响植物种子发育至今尚无一致性结论. 本文研究了三维回转器回旋模拟微重力对拟南芥种子发育(胚胎发育与代谢活动)的影响. 研究结果表明, 三维回转条件下, 拟南芥果荚出现不规则弯曲或扭曲形态, 形成的种子中可溶性糖和淀粉含量明显增加, 盐溶性贮藏蛋白质含量显著降低而碱溶性蛋白质含量显著升高, 球形胚时期的种子对三维回转处理最为敏感. 对球形胚时期的植株进行短期的三维回转处理可抑制胚柄细胞的分裂和伸长, 而胚柄伸长受阻可能会影响到营养物质向胚胎中输送, 进而导致部分胚胎败育. 对种子干燥脱水阶段的植株进行三维回转处理不影响胚胎的发育, 但会导致种子贮藏蛋白质含量下降.      

发动机短舱泄压过程瞬态仿真

发动机短舱泄压门的设计会影响到短舱的安全性,泄压是一个动态变化过程,与舱内外压力、外界气流马赫数及泄压门结构有关。基于Modelica语言建立了短舱泄压过程零维瞬态仿真数学模型,并通过计算流体力学（CFD）方法得到不同开启角度下所需泄压门排放质量流量和力矩系数,并将这些系数代入零维瞬态仿真数学模型,得到了短舱泄压过程中舱内压力、泄压门开启角度等关键参数随时间的变化关系,分析了泄压门开启舱内压力阈值及最大开启角度对泄压过程的影响。研究结果显示,降低泄压门开启舱内压力阈值会使泄压过程到达平衡阶段时间减小,但是对平衡阶段舱内压力和往复摆动角度/幅度无影响。适当降低最大开启角度可有效降低泄压平衡阶段往复摆动角度/幅度,而对初始阶段的泄压速率和平衡阶段的短舱内部压力基本无影响,但是随着最大开启角度进一步降低,则会导致泄压速率下降,并使平衡阶段短舱内部压力升高。      

重力对R134a在矩形小通道内冷凝过程的影响

为研究重力对小通道冷凝过程的影响,采用VOF模型对制冷剂R134a在水平放置的边长1mm方形截面小通道内的冷凝换热过程进行数值模拟.模拟过程考虑重力、表面张力和界面剪切力的综合作用,表面张力采用CSF模型.结果表明:重力对矩形小通道冷凝换热的影响不明显,蒸气在通道横截面上呈近似圆形分布;通道较短时重力对液膜的汇聚作用不明显,达到一定长度后重力作用凸显.研究结果为天舟一号货运飞船搭载的蒸发与冷凝科学实验研究项目冷凝空间实验方案设计提供了理论依据.      

空间飞行与回转器回旋条件下青菜开花与花粉发育的研究

比较研究了SJ-8返回式卫星留轨舱微重力条件与地面三维回转模拟微重力条件下青菜生长与发育情况.研究发现空间微重力条件下青菜开花过程需要大约18 h,明显长于地面对照5 h左右.回转器模拟实验结果表明,改变重力影响了花瓣的伸展与发育及花粉的产量,回转条件下花粉细胞中的微管排列明显不同于静止对照.细胞骨架受到干扰可能是改变重力条件下花粉产量降低的原因之一.本研究首次报道了在空间飞行试验中成功地采用了显微实时图像技术观察植物的开花过程,并获得了从花蕾到开花结束各阶段清晰的图像.      

重力跳动对多相流体系统的影响

研究了重力跳动对液桥表面及内部流体流动的影响, 以期明确重力跳动对多相流体系统的作用效果. 理论研究表明, 当重力跳动作用于液桥时, 液桥反响频率的大小取决于液桥尺寸和物性参数; 实验研究显示重力跳动引入的液桥表面振动、液桥内部流动与温度振动之间存在着三角耦合关系; 数值模拟结果揭示了重力跳动作用于液桥时液桥内部流体的流动结构. 另外, 对理论、实验与数值模拟结果进行了对比验证, 得到了吻合一致的结果.      

耗散大气中风场对内重力波传播的影响

使用考虑大气耗散的射线跟踪算法,计算了风场作用下重力波的传播情况.结果表明,风场对快速重力波分量影响较小,但对反射和传播区域的慢速波的影响较大,表现在顺风时使反射区范围缩小,逆风时使反射区范围扩大.在传播区,顺风场使慢速波分量的传播距离变小,传播高度降低,而逆风则使慢速重力波分量的传播距离明显增大,传播高度上升.分析表明,重力波传播的丰富多样性是由风场对波的衰减和反射等滤波作用引起的.      

空间与地面炉内压力和加热功率对炉内温场的影响

天宫二号空间综合材料实验装置的炉内压力和加热功率均影响炉内温场.针对空间与地面对比实验,分析了炉内压力和温场相同时炉丝加热功率的变化,以及炉内温场和炉丝加热功率相同时炉内压力的变化.地面实验时,炉内气体被炉丝加热后,由于重力作用产生对流,从而影响炉膛温度.炉内压力为1atm时,空间与地面实验的加热功率比约为97.5%.空间实验时,由于对流效应减弱,炉内压力变化对其最高温度影响减小.空间与地面的对比实验结果表明,地面炉内压力为空间炉内压力（1atm）的50%时,空间与地面实验的加热功率和温场等参数接近一致.这对于空间高温材料实验装置设计具有重要指导和参考意义.      

小尺度重力波引起夜光云反照率变化的统计特征

利用AIM卫星搭载的CIPS云成像探测器获得的云图数据，提取2008-2009年南北半球共6664个小尺度重力波（波长10～150km）个例，通过重力波区域与背景云层反照率变化值的对比分析，研究重力波引起云层反照率的变化特征.结果表明，重力波引起的反照率变化值以正值为主，最大平均值4.48×10-6sr-1出现在南半球降交轨道.反照率变化值与IWC变化值正相关，相关系数均在0.85以上.重力波引起的反照率变化呈现出很强的纬度和时间依赖性，且几乎均为正值.反照率变化值在中期阶段（冬/夏至日之后的50天）的高纬地区（>70°）更大，但在中期以外始末阶段的低纬地区（<70°）逐渐变小，甚至开始出现负值.随着背景云层的增强，反照率平均值呈线性增大，小尺度重力波能够引起背景云层反照率约14.6%～28.8%的变化量.当重力波引起的反照率周期性变化的振幅逐渐增大时，反照率变化值也线性增大，变化率约为0.909%～1.194%.南半球的变化率整体比北半球稍小，这与背景大气条件的差异有关      

A1CuMgZn单晶合金的空间凝固

重力对合金凝固过程与缺陷形成具有重要影响.在常规地面条件下难以清晰揭示凝固过程中的重力效应及其作用规律,而在微重力环境中重力对熔体的作用以及对凝固过程的影响大大降低.利用天宫二号空间实验并结合地面对比实验,研究AlCuMgZn单晶合金在微重力和重力环境下枝晶生长形貌和特征参数差异以及成分偏析和缺陷形成的异同,揭示重力对枝晶生长过程和成分偏析等现象的影响及其在凝固缺陷形成中的作用.     

Calcium signaling in plant cells in altered gravity.

Changes in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration in altered gravity (microgravity and clinostating) evidence that Ca2+ signaling can play a fundamental role in biological effects of microgravity. Calcium as a second messenger is known to play a crucial role in stimulus-response coupling for many plant cellular signaling pathways. Its messenger functions are realized by transient changes in the cytosolic ion concentration induced by a variety of internal and external stimuli such as light, hormones, temperature, anoxia, salinity, and gravity. Although the first data on the changes in the calcium balance in plant cells under the influence of altered gravity have appeared in 80th, a review highlighting the performed research and the possible significance of such Ca2+ changes in the structural and metabolic rearrangements of plant cells in altered gravity is still lacking. In this paper, an attempt was made to summarize the available experimental results and to consider some hypotheses in this field of research. It is proposed to distinguish between cell gravisensing and cell graviperception; the former is related to cell structure and metabolism stability in the gravitational field and their changes in microgravity (cells not specialized to gravity perception), the latter is related to active use of a gravitational stimulus by cells presumebly specialized to gravity perception for realization of normal space orientation, growth, and vital activity (gravitropism, gravitaxis) in plants. The main experimental data concerning both redistribution of free Ca2+ ions in plant cell organelles and the cell wall, and an increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration under the influence of altered gravity are presented. Based on the gravitational decompensation hypothesis, the consequence of events occurring in gravisensing cells not specialized to gravity perception under altered gravity are considered in the following order: changes in the cytoplasmic membrane surface tension --> alterations in the physicochemical properties of the membrane --> changes in membrane permeability, --> ion transport, membrane-bound enzyme activity, etc. --> metabolism rearrangements --> physiological responses. An analysis of data available on biological effects of altered gravity at the cellular level allows one to conclude that microgravity environment appears to affect cytoskeleton, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, cell wall biogenesis via changes in enzyme activity and protein expression, with involvement of regulatory Ca2+ messenger system. Changes in Ca2+ influx/efflux and possible pathways of Ca2+ signaling in plant cell biochemical regulation in altered gravity are discussed.     

Gravitropism of basidiomycetous fungi--on Earth and in microgravity.

In order to achieve perfect positioning of their lamellae for spore dispersal, fruiting bodies of higher fungi rely on the omnipresent force gravity. Only accurate negatively gravitropic orientation of the fruiting body cap will guarantee successful reproduction. A spaceflight experiment during the STS-55 Spacelab mission in 1993 confirmed that the factor gravity is employed for spatial orientation. Most likely every hypha in the transition zone between the stipe and the cap region is capable of sensing gravity. Sensing presumably involves slight sedimentation of nuclei which subsequently causes deformation of the net-like arrangement of F-actin filament strands. Hyphal elongation is probably driven by hormone-controlled activation and redistribution of vesicle traffic and vesicle incorporation into the vacuoles and cell walls to subsequently cause increased water uptake and turgor pressure. Stipe bending is achieved by way of differential growth of the flanks of the upper-most stipe region. After reorientation to a horizontal position, elongation of the upper flank hyphae decreases 40% while elongation of the lower flank slightly increases. On the cellular level gravity-stimulated vesicle accumulation was observed in hyphae of the lower flank.     

Possible mechanisms of plant cell wall changes at microgravity.

Space and clinostatic experiments revealed that changes of plant cell wall structure and its function depend on type of tissue and duration of influence. It was shown that clinostat conditions reproduce the part of weightlessness biological effects. It is established that various responses of wall structural-metabolic organization occur at microgravity: changes of cell walls ultrastructure and organelles structure; decrease of synthesis of primary plant cell wall; rearrangements of polysaccharides content. It is shown that mechanisms of plant cell wall changes at microgravity are connected with decrease of cellulose crystallization, activation of pectolytic enzymes and rearrangement of calcium balance of apoplast and cytoplasm.     

Possible actions of gravity on the cellular machinery.

Since the first flight of the ESA Biorack on the German Spacelab Mission D1 in 1985 evidence has been obtained that biological cells and small unicellular organisms function differently under conditions of microgravity. However, there is still lack of scientific proof that these effects are caused by a direct influence on the cells in the weightlessness condition. The question how normal gravity may play a role in cellular activity is being addressed and the results show that gravity may provide important signals during certain state transitions in the cell. These would be gravity-sensitive windows in the biological process. Also, by amplification mechanisms inside the cell, the cell may assume a state that is typical for normal gravity conditions and would change in microgravity. Experimental tools are discussed that would provide the conditions to obtain evidence for direct action of gravity and for the possible existence of gravity-sensitive windows.     

Physical parameters affecting living cells in space

The question is posed: Why does a living cell react to the absence of gravity? What sensors may it have? Does it note pressure, sedimentation, convection, or other parameters?

If somewhere in a liquid volume sodium ions are replaced by potassium ions, the density of the liquid changes locally: the heavier regions sink, the lighter regions rise. This may contribute to species transport, to the metabolism. Under microgravity this mechanism is strongly reduced. On the other hand, other reasons for convection like thermal and solutal interface convection are left. Do they affect species transport?

Another important effect of gravity is the hydrostatic pressure. On the macroscopic side, the pressure between our head and feet changes by 0.35 atmospheres. On the microscopic level the hydrostatic pressure on the upper half of a cell membrane is lower than on the lower half. This, by affecting the ion transport through the membrane, may change the surrounding electric potential. It has been suggested to be one of the reasons for graviperception.

Following the discussion of these and other effects possibly important in life sciences in space, an order of magnitude analysis of the residual accelerations tolerable during experiments in materials sciences is outlined. In the field of life sciences only rough estimates are available at present.     

Calcium gradient in plant cells with polarized growth in simulated microgravity.

Plant cells characterized by apical growth, for example, root hairs and apical cells of moss protonema, are a convenient model to address the problem of gravity response mechanisms including initiation of cell polarity. The fluorescent calcium probe, chlorotetracycline, allowed us to display the calcium distribution gradient in these cells. Irradiation by red light led to a sharp decrease in the Ca2+ ion activity in cells. During clinostatting in darkness the pattern of calcium influx and distribution changes inconsiderably as compared with control; in root hairs calcium is detected mainly in their apices and bases as in control. Addition of chlorpromazine to the medium probably increases the influx and accumulation of Ca2+ ions. Under data obtained confirm speculations on the Ca2+ ion functional role for the apical growth of plant cells and may suggest the participation of gravity in redistribution or activation of ion channels, calcium channels included, in the plasmalemma.     

Growth of pea epicotyl in low magnetic field implication for space research

A magnetic field is an inescapable environmental factor for plants on the earth. However, its impact on plant growth is not well understood. In order to survey how magnetic fields affect plant, Alaska pea seedlings were incubated under low magnetic field (LMF) and also in the normal geo-magnetic environment. Two-day-old etiolated seedlings were incubated in a magnetic shield box and in a control box. Sedimentation of amyloplasts was examined in the epicotyls of seedlings grown under these two conditions. The elongation of epicotyls was promoted by LMF. Elongation was most prominent in the middle part of the epicotyls. Cell elongation and increased osmotic pressure of cell sap were found in the epidermal cells exposed to LMF. When the gravitational environment was 1G, the epicotyls incubated under both LMF and normal geomagnetic field grew straight upward and amyloplasts sedimented similarly. However, under simulated microgravity (clinostat), epicotyl and cell elongation was promoted. Furthermore, the epicotyls bent and amyloplasts were dispersed in the cells in simulated microgravity. The dispersion of amyloplasts may relate to the posture control in epicotyl growth under simulated microgravity generated by 3D clinorotation, since it was not observed under LMF in 1G. Since enhanced elongation of cells was commonly seen both at LMF and in simulated microgravity, all elongation on the 3D-clinostat could result from pseudo-low magnetic field, as a by-product of clinorotation. (i.e., clinostat results could be based on randomization of magnetic field together with randomization of gravity vector.) Our results point to the possible use of space for studies in magnetic biology. With space experiments, the effects of dominant environmental factors, such as gravity on plants, could be neutralized or controlled for to reveal magnetic effects more clearly.     

Changes in vacuolation in the root apex cells of soybean seedlings in microgravity.

Changes in the vacuolation in root apex cells of soybean (Glycine max L. [Merr.]) seedlings grown in microgravity were investigated. Spaceflight and ground control seedlings were grown in the absence or presence of KMnO4 (to remove ethylene) for 6 days. After landing, in order to study of cell ultrastructure and subcellular free calcium ion distribution, seedling root apices were fixed in 2.5% (w/v) glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M cacodylate buffer and 2% (w/v) glutaraldehyde, 2.5% (w/v) formaldehyde, 2% (w/v) potassium antimonate K[Sb(OH)6] in 0.1 M K2HPO4 buffer with an osmolarity (calculated theoretically) of 0.45 and 1.26 osmol. The concentrations of ethylene in all spaceflight canisters were significantly higher than in the ground control canisters. Seedling growth was reduced in the spaceflight-exposed plants. Additionally, the spaceflight-exposed plants exhibited progressive vacuolation in the root apex cells, particularly in the columella cells, to a greater degree than the ground controls. Plasmolysis was observed in columella cells of spaceflight roots fixed in solutions with relatively high osmolarity (1.26 osmol). The appearance of plasmolysis permitted the evaluation of the water status of cells. The water potential of the spaceflight cells was higher than the surrounding fixative solution. A decrease in osmotic potential and/or an increase in turgor potential may have induced increases in cell water potential. However, the plasmolysed (i.e. non-turgid) cells implied that increases in water potential were accompanied with a decrease in osmotic potential. In such cells changes in vacuolation may have been involved to maintain turgor pressure or may have been a result of intensification of other vacuolar functions like digestion and storage.     

Theoretical considerations of plant gravisensing.

The mechanisms proposed to explain gravity sensing can be divided into two groups, "statolith" and "non-statolith" mechanisms. The traditional estimates of the plausibility of these mechanisms are based on the analysis of the signal-to-noise ratio. The existing data indicate that the problem of plant gravisensing may be related to the general problem of the detection of weak signals in mechanoreceptors. This paper reviews the known mechanisms of plant gravisensing as well as the latest nonlinear stochastic models of mechanoreception in which noise promotes detection and amplification of weak signals. These models based on nonlinear stochastic phenomena may be used to explain plant gravisensing, if the cell is considered a dynamic, spatially distributed system of active intracellular cytoskeletal networks and mechanosensitive proteins.     

Prediction of horizontal gas–solid flows under different gravitational fields

In this paper the performance of horizontal pneumatic conveying under different gravity environments is evaluated. An Euler–Lagrange approach validated versus ground experiments is employed to predict the relevant particle variables such as particle mass flux, mean conveying and fluctuating velocities in terrestrial, lunar and micro-gravity conditions. Gravity reduced computations predict a reduction in the global particle–wall collision frequency. Also, in the case of low wall roughness and small particle mass loading, reduction of gravity acceleration implies an increase of particle–wall collision frequency with the upper wall of the channel affecting greatly the particle mass flux profile. In the case of high wall roughness and/or high particle-to-fluid mass loading (i.e., around 1.0) particle conveying characteristics are similar in the three gravity conditions evaluated. This is due to the fact that both, wall roughness and inter-particle collisions reduce gravitational settling. However, the influence of gravity on the additional pressure loss along the channel due to the conveying of the particles is much reduced.