Star formation and AGN fuelling

We present new observational data that tackle the issues of the star formation in Seyfert galaxies, the obscuration and fuelling mechanisms of active galactic nuclei, and the connection between these phenomena. New ISOCAM mid-IR images of nearby Seyfert 2 galaxies confirm that these systems are characterized by enhanced star forming activity. In barred systems the star forming activity occurs preferentially along the bar, indicating that these bars have formed recently and are still in the process of transporting gas towards the center. New X-ray data indicate that the gaseous column density absorbing Sy2 nuclei is a function of the bar strength, therefore indicating that stellar bars play an important role in obscuring AGNs. We speculate that non-axisymmetric disturbances (interaction/bars) both enhance the star forming activity in host galaxy and drive gas into the nuclear region to obscure the AGN, thus making the observed starburst-Sy2 connection. On smaller scales (10–100 pc), we report the discovery of a nuclear gaseous bar in the nearby Sy2 Circinus galaxy. The molecular gas kinematics indicates that this bar causes the gas to flow into the nuclear 10 pc. In the nuclear 10 pc we detect a young nuclear stellar cluster. We show that the post-main-sequence mass loss of this young nuclear stellar population could account for the fuelling of the active nucleus.     

VLBA imaging of parsec-scale gas in Seyfert galaxies

Seyfert galaxies contain small-scale radio jets that indicate the presence of compact active galactic nuclei of the same type found in more powerful quasars and radio galaxies. Since most Seyferts are relatively nearby, their nuclear environments can be probed at much higher resolution than in those more powerful sources. In addition, the relative weakness of the active nucleus makes the effects of the circumnuclear gas more important. VLBA images of a number of Seyfert galaxies have been produced, often at multiple frequencies, in order to reveal the presence and nature of the gas in the inner 1–100 parsecs of the galaxies. Absorption effects at gigahertz frequencies, due to both synchrotron self-absorption and free-free absorption, are quite common; the free-free absorption indicates the presence of large quantities of ionized gas in the inner few parsecs of the galaxies. Changes in radio position angles on parsec scales also occur in several galaxies, implying that Seyfert nuclei may have multiple symmetry axes.     

Stellar absorption lines in the spectra of Seyfert galaxies

We have measured the strengths of Ca II triplet and Mgb stellar absorption lines in the nuclear and off-nuclear spectra of Seyfert galaxies. These features are diluted to varying degrees by continuum emission from the active nucleus and from young stars. Ca II triplet strengths can be enhanced if late-type supergiant stars dominate the near-IR light. Thus, objects with strong Ca II triplet and weak Mgb lines may be objects with strong bursts of star formation. We find that for most of our sample the line strengths are at least consistent with dilution of a normal galaxy spectrum by a power law continuum, in accord with the standard model for AGN. However, for several Seyferts in our sample, it appears that dilution by a power law continuum cannot simultaneously explain strong Ca II triplet and relatively weak Mgb. Also, these objects occupy the region of the IRAS color-color diagram characteristic of starburst galaxies. In these objects it appears that the optical to near-IR emission is dominated by late-type supergiants produced in a circumnuclear burst of star formation.     

Ginga observations of Seyfert galaxies

We observed twenty-eight Seyfert 2 galaxies with the Japanese X-ray satellite, Ginga, and found Seyfert 2 galaxies, in general, have the X-ray spectral characteristics of obscured Seyfert 1 nuclei. This result agrees with the predictions from Unified Seyfert model proposed by Antonucci and Miller /1/. However, among the observed Seyfert 2 galaxies, there are a few galaxies with no evidence of an obscuration, contrary to the general predictions of the unified model. We note that type 2 AGN will contribute to the Cosmic Diffuse X-ray Background, if the unified Seyfert model can be extended to the far distant AGN such as quasars.     

High-density and high-temperature molecular gas around the AGN in M51

We investigated the physical properties of molecular gas in the nuclear region of M51 (Seyfert 2). We obtained an aperture synthesis ¹³CO(J = 1 − 0) image using the Nobeyama Millimeter Array (NMA), and compared it with NMA ¹²CO(J = 1 − 0) and HCN(J = 1 − 0) maps at similar spatial resolutions. Within a radius of 180 pc from the center, the ¹³CO(1 − 0) integrated intensity was found to be 3 times weaker than that of HCN(1 − 0). Large-Velocity-Gradient (LVG) calculations suggest that the observed high HCN(1 − 0)/¹³CO(1 − 0) intensity ratio would arise from dense (n_H2 ∼ 10⁵ cm⁻³) and hot (T_kin ≳ 300 K) molecular clouds in the nuclear molecular disk. We also observed in the ¹²CO(1 − 0), (3 − 2), ¹³CO(1 − 0), and (3 − 2) lines using the Nobeyama 45m and JCMT 15m telescopes. We detected weak ¹³CO lines as well as strong ¹²CO lines. The LVG calculations assuming a two-component model suggest that there is a large amount of low-density (n_H2 ∼ 3 − 6 × 10² cm⁻³), low-temperature (T_kin ∼ 20 – 50 K) gas, and a small amount of high-density (n_H2 ≳ 10⁴ cm⁻³), high-temperature (T_kin ≳ 500 K) gas. The existence of the high-density and high-temperature component, although having a quite small beam filling factor, supports the aperture synthesis observation results mentioned above. Since this dense, hot gas is located in the nuclear molecular disk around the Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN), it may be heated by the strong X-ray radiation and/or by the shock induced by the radio jet.     

Cold gas contents of galaxies and its relation to fueling: Gas dynamics and related phenomena in bar-driven evolution of disk galaxies

The distribution and the dynamics of the cold gas in the circumnuclear regions (r ≲ [1 − a few] kpc) of disk galaxies have been observed at high resolutions of a few arcsec in λ2.6 mm CO (J=1→0) line emission. Distinct CO features are commonly found in the observed disk galaxies and they are different from galaxy to galaxy. They are explained by means of orbit-resonance theories and dynamical evolution. The evolutionary sequence in time is constructed based on the studies of dynamics in theoretical works and numerical simulations in the literature. Not only the behavior of the cold gas but also the starburst, outbreaks of the active galactic nucleus, and the evolution of global structures in disk galaxies are discussed in the bar-driven evolution scenario.     

A study of a complete soft X-ray selected sample of AGN

We present preliminary results from analyses of hard X-ray and optical observations of a soft X-ray selected sample. We created a small but complete sample with 20 of the softest and brightest objects with low Galactic absorption from the ROSAT bright soft X-ray selected radio-quiet AGN sample. This sample consists of 10 narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies and 10 broad-line Seyfert galaxies. We analyze ASCA data in the 0.6–10 keV band and optical spectra from ground-based telescopes. We investigate the photon indices in the hard X-ray band, soft excesses in the ASCA band, and optical emission line properties. The photon indices in the 2–10 keV band are nominal for both narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies and broad-line Seyfert 1 galaxies in each class compared with other heterogeneous samples. All of the narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies show soft excesses, but this component seems to be less significant for broad-line Seyfert 1 galaxies. There seems to be a trend of steeper X-ray spectra to be accompanied by narrower Hβ for narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies, but this is not extended to the larger velocity width regime of broad-line Seyfert 1 galaxies, and no clear trend is seen among them.     

X-ray broad line emission in Seyfert galaxies: Mrk 766 and NGC 4051

Long (>100 ks) observations of the bright Seyfert galaxies Mrk 766 and NGC 4051 have been obtained using XMM-Newton. The RGS 5–38 Å spectra reveal evidence of broad features. These can be modelled with relativistic emission lines coming from the immediate vicinity of a massive rotating black hole. Lines of OVIII, NVII and CVI are required to reproduce the spectrum of Mrk 766, whereas the spectrum of NGC 4051 can be modelled using a single, even broader OVIII line. Both Seyferts also exhibit broad iron line emission in the 2–8 keV range, and the data available thus far suggest that the strength of the low-energy emission lines and the strength of the iron line may be correlated.     

Evaluation of the contribution of different types of galaxies to the cosmic diffuse background based on γ-ray observations

The relative contribution to the γ-ray background of different types of sources, namely Seyfert Galaxies, Quasars, BL Lac objects, radio galaxies and field galaxies is estimated under the hypothesis that the cosmic diffuse flux is the result of a superposition of many unresolved galaxies. The γ-ray data indicate that the Seyfert volume emissivity matches that of the diffuse background at few hundred keV and exceeds it at higher energies by as much as a factor of about 4. Whilst normal galaxies contribute less than 0.1%, BL Lac objects, Quasars and Radio Galaxies may contribute as much as 5–10% each, even without significant evolution. In this paper we explore different ways of reconciling the observational data on active galaxies with the measured diffuse background level.     

“Microquasars” and the X-ray background

The results of 1–20 μm infrared photometry of seven 3CR radio galaxies are discussed. The broad line galaxies all show steep infrared spectra with a power law index α −2.4 (F ∝ ν^+α) in direct continuation of the optical spectra. These spectra are far steeper than those observed in Seyfert 1 galaxies, the radio quiet counterparts of broad line radio galaxies. No infrared excesses were observed in narrow line radio galaxies. However, more sensitive observations are needed before any resemblance in the infrared between narrow line radio galaxies and Seyfert 2 galaxies can be excluded.     

X-ray measurements of the dark matter distribution in clusters of galaxies with Chandra

We investigate the dark matter distributions in the central region of two clusters of galaxies (A1835 and MKW3S) using Chandra data. N-body simulations in the standard cold dark matter (CDM) model predict the dark matter distribution shows a cuspy dark matter profile: ρ(r) ∝ r, with in the range 1–2, while observations of dwarf and low surface brightness galaxies seem to favor the presence of a relatively flat core: 0 <  < 1. To investigate the dark matter distributions in the central region of clusters of galaxies, we analyze the Chandra data of A1835 and MKW3S with a deprojection method. We derive the mass profiles without the assumption of analytical models. We examine the inner slope of derived mass profiles assuming the dark matter profile is described with a power-law expression. The values of the slope are 0.95 ± 0.10 for A1835 and 1.33 ± 0.12 for MKW3S within the radius of 200 kpc. These are consistent with the result of the CDM simulations. However, within the radius of 100 kpc, the value of is less than unity for A1835 (0.47 ± 0.31). Our result implies that the central dark matter profile of some clusters cannot be described by CDM halos.     

Extreme starburst or central activity in X-ray luminous IRAS galaxies

ROSAT All Sky Survey observations of IRAS galaxies have revealed up to now a number of 10 optically non-Seyfert galaxies with X-ray (0.1–2.4) luminosities up to a few 10⁴³erg · s⁻¹ (Boller et al. 1992). The sources are brighter than previous detection limits of a few 10⁴¹erg · s⁻¹ as found by Stocke et al. (1991) or Green, Anderson and Ward (1992) for Einstein sources. The optical classification is based on follow-up observations which indicate clearly the non-Seyfert (LINER and HII region-like galaxies) nature. Our investigations reveal that galaxies classified as non-Seyferts on the basis of optical spectroscopy may reach exceptionally high X-ray luminosities which are similar to that of Seyfert galaxies. On the basis of the present observational material we suppose a hidden low luminosity AGN in the centre of these objects as the source of energy production. The objects are of interest when evaluating starburst versus central activity.     

Some implications of high luminosity and fast variability in active galactic nuclei

An analysis of the variability timescale against bolometric luminosity for Active Galactic Nuclei shows that a number of sources violate the Eddington limit. The average ratio (L/L_E) is found to change according to group classification. Whilst Seyfert Galaxies have luminosites well within the Eddington limit, Quasars and BL Lac object tend to approach and exceed this limit. Furthermore, BL Lac objects may be further subdivided on the basis of their (L/L_E) ratio. The data on luminosity and variability timescale indicate the existence of two types of active galaxies, one having highly anisotropic emission, probably collimated into jets with pointing angles within few degrees to the line of sight, and the other relating to isotropic emission of photons from the nuclear region. The results are discussed in the light of the high γ-ray luminosity suggested by recent observations of active galaxies.     

Nuclear-to-disk rotation curves and mass-to-luminosity ratio in galaxies

High-resolution nuclear-to-outer rotation curves for Sb, SBb, Sc, and SBc galaxies generally show a steep nuclear rise and flat rotation from the disk to the halo. The high-velocity central rotation indicates massive cores within bulges. Since this characteristic is common to most galaxies, the high-velocity central rotation cannot be due to a particular orientation of non-circular motion. Using these rotation curves, we derive the distributions of surface-mass density, and compare them directly with observed surface-luminosity distributions. The mass-to-luminosity ratio (M/L) increases from the outer bulge to the disk, indicating that the outer disk is already dominated by dark-mass. It, then, increases more rapidly toward the outer optical edge, indicating the massive halo. In the central regions of some galaxies, the M/L increases steeply toward the nucleus, reaching a value an order of magnitude greater in the central 100 pc region than that in the disk, which may indicate a massive core of radius ∼ 100 parsecs and mass of ∼ 10⁹ M_⊙. The core may be an object linking a bulge and a black hole at the nucleus.     

Galactic outflows and the pollution of the galactic environment by supernovae

We here explore the effects of the SN explosions into the halo of star-forming galaxies like the Milky Way. Successive randomly distributed and clustered SNe explosions cause the formation of hot superbubbles that drive either fountains or galactic winds above the galactic disk, depending on the amount and concentration of energy that is injected by the SNe. In a galactic fountain, the ejected gas is re-captured by the gravitational potential and falls back onto the disk. From 3D non-equilibrium radiative cooling hydrodynamical simulations of these fountains, we find that they may reach altitudes up to about 5 kpc in the halo and thus allow for the formation of the so called intermediate-velocity-clouds (IVCs) which are often observed in the halos of disk galaxies. The high-velocity-clouds that are also observed but at higher altitudes (of up to 12 kpc) require another mechanism to explain their production. We argue that they could be formed either by the capture of gas from the intergalactic medium and/or by the action of magnetic fields that are carried to the halo with the gas in the fountains. Due to angular momentum losses to the halo, we find that the fountain material falls back to smaller radii and is not largely spread over the galactic disk. Instead, the SNe ejecta fall nearby the region where the fountain was produced, a result which is consistent with recent chemical models of the galaxy. The fall back material leads to the formation of new generations of molecular clouds and to supersonic turbulence feedback in the disk.     

Compact X-ray sources in nearby galaxy nuclei

We have found compact, near-nuclear X-ray sources in 21 (54%) of a complete sample of 39 nearby face-on spiral and elliptical galaxies with available ROSAT HRI data. ROSAT X-ray luminosities (0.2 – 2.4 keV) of these compact X-ray sources are ∼10³⁷ – 10⁴⁰ erg s⁻¹. The mean displacement between the location of the compact X-ray source and the optical photometric center of the galaxy is ∼390 pc. ASCA spectra of six of the 21 galaxies show the presence of a hard component with relatively steep (Γ ≈ 2.5) spectral slope. A multicolor disk blackbody plus power-law model fits the data from the spiral galaxies well, suggesting that the X-ray objects in these galaxies may be similar to a black hole candidate (BHC) in its soft (high) state. ASCA data from the elliptical galaxies indicate that hot (kT ≈ 0.7 keV) gas dominates the emission. The fact that the spectral slope of the spiral galaxy sources is steeper than in normal type 1 active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and that relatively low absorbing columns (N_H ≈ 10²¹ cm⁻²) were found to the power-law component indicates that these objects are somehow geometrically and/or physically different from AGNs in normal active galaxies. The X-ray sources in the spiral galaxies may be BHCs, low-luminosity AGNs, or possibly X-ray luminous supernovae. We estimate the black hole masses of the X-ray sources in the spiral galaxies (if they are BHCs or AGNs) to be ∼10²–10³ M_⊙. The X-ray sources in the elliptical galaxies may be BHCs, AGNs or young X-ray supernova also.     

Active galaxies observed by IUE

IUE has extended the grasp of ultraviolet astronomy to cover active galaxies and quasars fainter than the sixteenth magnitude. These observations have:(i) provided a diagnostic for the source of ionization in active galaxies,(ii) cast light on the excitation mechanism of the Fe II lines,(iii) shown the broad hydrogen lines in Seyferts and quasars are not in their recombination ratios,(iv) demonstrated the absence of gas in BL Lac objects,(v) supported the gravitational lens explanation of the double quasar,(vi) demonstrated the presence of a hot (30 000 K) black body in active nuclei,(vii) discovered stratification of the ionization conditions in the Broad Line Regions of active nuclei.     

The role of ultraviolet imaging in studies of resolved and unresolved young stellar populations. M31 and M33

We discuss the relevance of UV data in the detection and characterization of hot massive stars and young stellar populations in galaxies. We show results from recent extensive surveys in M31 and M33 with Hubble Space Telescope (HST) multi-wavelength data including UV filters, which imaged several regions at a linear resolution (projected) of less than half a pc in these galaxies, and from GALEX far-UV and near-UV wide-field, low-resolution imaging of the entire galaxies. Both datasets allow us to study the hierarchical structure of star formation: the youngest stellar groups are the most compact, and are often arranged within broader, sparser structures. The derived recent star-formation rates are rather similar for the two galaxies, when scaled for the respective areas. We show how uncertainties in metallicity and type of selective extinction for the internal reddening may affect the results, and how an appropriate complement of UV filters could reduce such uncertainties, and significantly alleviate some parameter degeneracies.     

Positron annihilaton radiation from the nuclei of Seyfert galaxies

Recent gamma-ray observations of two Seyfert Galaxies are interpreted in terms of electron-positron pair annihilation radiation. A simplified scenario is envisaged in which a massive black hole is accreting material from an optically thin disk characterized by a hot (T > 10⁹ °K) e^± plasma. At these very high temperatures the 511 keV line emission loses its characteristic features to become both broadened and blue shifted. Observational X and gamma-ray data are used to investigate the possibility that the “bump” in the spectral emission at photon energies E ～ 1 MeV observed in Seyfert galaxies may be due to this annihilation feature. In particular the self consistency of the parameters estimated from the gamma-ray data is explored. Furthermore we investigate the possibility that this annihilation feature may be mirrored in the cosmic diffuse background and, under this assumption, we calculate the maximum temperature of the annihilation region and the average annihilation rate for Seyfert galaxies.