Initiation of spherical detonation in hydrocarbon/air mixtures

Spherical detonations have been initiated by solid explosive (Tetryl) charges in well-mixed stoicheiometric air mixtures with each of the hydrocarbons, ethane, propane, n-butane, isobutane and ethylene at atmospheric pressure. Prior to initiation, the gases were contained in plastic bags; total gas volume and available path length were up to 1.6 m³ and 2 m, respectively. The detonations were shown to be self-sustained by continuous measurement of detonation velocity using X-band microwave interferometry. Measured detonation velocities were in all cases close to calculated C-J values.In a few experiments close to the limits of detonability, velocity and blast pressure/time records indicated that the propagating wave system is sometimes irregular. The irregularity that occurs just after initiation is characterised by a reaction front velocity very much lower than the constant detonation velocity, but subsequently attaining the latter by an acceleration process. These observations indicate the existence of a dissociated phase in which shock and reaction fronts may no longer be coupled.Because similar experimental conditions were used throughout, it was possible to establish the relative susceptibilities of the various fuel gases to detonation. Comparison is made with the Zeldovich criterion and a detonation kernel theory of Lee.     

Photochemical initiation of gaseous detonations

Direct initiation of detonations in gaseous mixtures of C₂H₂-O₂, H₂-O₂ and H₂-Cl₂ in the pressure range of 10–150 torr using flash photolysis was studied. Similar to blast initiation using a concentrated powerful energy source, it was found that for photochemical initiation, there exists a certain threshold of flash intensity and energy for each mixture at any given initial pressure and composition below which a deflagration is formed. At the critical threshold, however, a fully developed detonation is rapidly formed in the immediate vicinity of the window of incident UV radiation. However, at super critical flash energies, the amplitude of the detonation formed decreases and combustion of the entire irradiated volume approaches a constant volume explosion. It was found that photo-chemical initiation requires both a certain minimum peak value of the free radical concentration generated by the photo-dissociation as well as an appropriate gradient of this free radical distribution. The minimum peak radical concentration permits rapid reaction rates for the generation of strong pressure waves, while the gradient is necessary for the amplification of the shock waves to a detonation. If the gradient is absent and the free radicals are uniformly distributed in the mixture, then the entire volume simply explodes as in a constant volume process. The present study reveals that the mechanism of photochemical initiation is one of proper temporal synchronization of the chemical energy release to the shock wave as it propagates through the mixture. In analogy to the LASER, the term SWACER is introduced to represent this mechanism of Shock Wave Amplication by Coherent Energy Release. There are strong indications that this SWACER mechanism is universal and plays the main role in the formation of detonations whenever a powerful concentrated external source is not used to generate a strong shock wave in the explosive.     

High speed gas flows in explosions of cavitated explosives

A possibility of attaining steady flow of detonation products with specific energy much larger than the specific chemical energy of explosive is demonstrated in the case when a cylindrical charge of explosive is fitted with an evacuated cavity. Simple estimates and results of numerical analysis of the process are presented. Steady process may be considered to occur under the following assumptions: (1) effects arising due to jet interaction with cavity walls are negligible; (2) the detonation process is steady. In the case of limited explosive lengths these assumptions have been shown to be correct.When the cavity is filled with gas or liquid, a variety of steady and non-steady flow regimes is possible, depending on the density of the filling medium. One well-known case is that of flow with irregular reflection of shock waves at the cavity axis accompanied with the formation of Mach intersections. Another interesting flow regime is observed to occur in the case of low density filling medium (liquid hydrogen, for example). In this case the filling medium is driven by a “detonation piston” at constant velocity, equal to the velocity of detonation, forming a uniform growing column of hot shock-compressed matter, specific energy of which exceeds by one order of magnitude the specific energy of the explosive. Obviously, the walls of the vessel containing hydrogen must be able to withstand radial loads for a sufficiently long time (20 μ sec).The relative merits of these methods in comparison to others in high speed gas-dynamics is discussed.     

The failure of marginal detonations in expanding channels

Critical conditions for detonation failure due to tube expansion have been observed in marginal detonations propagating in a in. (6.35 × 76.2 mm) channel. In these experiments, a well established marginal detonation propagating in the narrow channel entered a test section in which one of the narrow walls was inclined to the central axis at positive angles which ranged from 10° to 45°. Experiments were performed at pressures ranging from 60 to 200 torr (8 to 26.7 kPa) in stoichiometric hydrogen-oxygen mixtures diluted with 20, 50 and 70% argon. Smoke track records obtained on the surface which is the major dimension of the tube, were used to determine failure, incipient failure or self-sustenance of the entering wave.Because of the narrow tube used in the studies the incident waves were marginal in that their velocity was below the expected CJ (Chapman-Jouguet) value, their transverse wave spacing was larger than one would see in a large tube, and the transverse waves were of greater strength than in an ordinary detonation. All of these indicators of marginal behavior became progressively more pronounced as the pressure dropped from 200 torr (26.7 kPa) to the limit pressure of approximately 58 torr (7.73 kPa).The most interesting result of this experimental investigation is that the theoretical analyses predicted that simple one-dimensional opening of the tube should not show a pressure dependence to failure, while the experiments showed a definite decrease in the opening angle required for failure as initial pressure decreased. This behavior is related to the marginality of the incident waves, which is observed to increase smoothly with decreased pressure. It is postulated that detonation failure in the hydrogen-oxygen system occurs when the shock velocity at the end of the cell drops to about 0.60 of the CJ value due either to marginal behavior or to an expansion of the cross section of the tube.     

Blasting methods to improve rock fragmentation

A method to improve rock fragmentation with explosives is based on a new way of explosion energy transfer to the solid media. It provides a considerably higher efficiency of the explosion energy by changing the gas dynamic processes of the expansion of detonation products in the charge chamber.In practice this method has been instrumental in developing two new types of charges: the air-spaced charge for rock fragmentation and the air-cavity charge for heaving blasts.The basic idea underlying charge construction in both types consists of a most efficient transfer of explosion energy into rock fragmentation or heaving process by reducing the initial peak pressure and increasing the time of explosive action upon the rock mass. When exploding such charges, shock waves and gas streams undergo gas dynamic interactions in air cavities causing the rock to be repeatedly loaded with a system of shock compressions. This makes it possible to reduce energy losses due to too fine rock fragmentation in the zone next to the charge, as well as to increase the amount of energy directed for a more even breakage of the entire rock material.An application of the new types of charges in both construction and mining industry increased the excavator efficiency by 20–40%, reduced the specific consumption of explosives by more than 20%, diminished seismic influence of explosions, etc.The new method of rock fragmentation described here paves the way for further development of the theory and practice of blasting operations yielding a higher efficiency of the use of explosions.     

Detonation in two-layer systems

Detonation in heterogeneous systems involving parallel layers of two different substances was investigated. It was assumed that the denser medium can undergo fast chemical reaction without mixing with the other medium, and the detonation propagates along the two layers. The process of initiation is associated with a shock wave advancing through the medium of lesser density. An idealized gasdynamic model of the phenomenon is proposed in order to evaluate detonation parameters of the two-layer system on the basis of the characteristic features of its constituents. As calculation shows, in the absence of mixing between the two layers, the detonation is capable of propagating at a higher velocity than in the case when the constituents forming the layers are mixed.     

Cylindrical heterogeneous detonation waves

Further experimental studies of blast wave initiated cylindrical heterogeneous (liquid fuel drops, gas oxidizer) detonation waves are described. A pie-shaped shock tube, used for these studies, was altered in certain ways so as to improve the modeling of cylindrical waves. These modifications, along with some operational aspects, are briefly discussed. The breech of the facility, where the blast wave is generated by an explosive, became distorted with usage. Results are presented which show that lower detonation velocities are realized with the damaged breech (other conditions being the same). A photographic and pressure switch wave time of arrival study was made to ascertain the wave shape. Photographs are shown which show that the waves, blast as well as detonation, are close to cylindrical. However, in some cases there is appreciable distortion of the wave front by debris ahead of the wave. Presumably this debris comes from the blasting cap used to ignite the condensed explosive. A series of experiments was conducted using kerosene drops of 388 μm diameter dispersed in air through use of a large number of hypodermic needles. Radial fuel void regions were established by cutting off the fuel flow to a number of needles. Preliminary results relating to the effect of the size of the cloud gap on detonation velocity, quenching, and the initiator energy levels required for detonation are discussed.     

Some aspects of blast from fuel-air explosives

Numerical solutions of the blast wave flow from a spherical explosive charge were obtained using the artificial viscosity technique as employed by Oppenheim. The flow is treated as adiabatic and inviscid and ideal equations of state are used for reactants, products and the surrounding air environment. Differences are noted in the peak pressure, static impulse and dynamic impulse resulting from three representative types of idealized initiation: (1) centrally initiated, self-similar Chapman-Jouguet detonation, (2) edge initiated spherical implosion and (3) constant volume energy release followed by sudden venting to the environment. These are compared to the ideal point blast with counterpressure of the same total energy release. In addition, numerical solutions are presented for centrally initiated, stoichiometric hydrogen-oxygen mixtures surrounded by air for detonation and for deflagration according to an empirically determined, non-steady flame velocity. The greater energy transfer to the environment in the case of detonation is demonstrated.     

The influence of pressure on combustion intensity

The influence of pressure in the range of 3–15 kgf/cm² on combustion intensity is studied experimentally in a medium-sized rig. The apparatus is described and temperature measurements by different thermocouple techniques are discussed; gas composition was monitored by gas chromatography. The experiments were performed at different cross sections allowing to map temperatures and gas concentrations. The results show that temperature and carbon dioxide concentration increase more rapidly as the pressure is raised. Carbon monoxide appears as an intermediate and is concentrated near the combustion axis. The combustion zone becomes shorter with increasing pressure and the combustion intensity increases correspondingly.     

The onset of converging and diverging shock waves in non-equilibrium gas flows

In this work, the effects of thermodynamical influences and that of wave front curvature on the propagation of finite amplitude waves of arbitrary shape and their consequent formation into shock waves are examined.     

Growth and decay of weak discontinuities in radiative gasdynamics

Growth and decay properties of weak discontinuities headed by wave fronts of arbitrary shape in three dimensions are investigated in a thermally radiating inviscid gas flow. The effects of radiative transfer are treated by the use of a general differential approximation for a grey gas of arbitrary opacity including effects of radiative flux, pressure and energy density. The transport equations representing the rate of change of discontinuities in the normal derivatives of the flow variables are obtained, and it is found that the nonlinearity in the governing equations does not contribute anything to the radiation induced waves. In contrast to the radiation induced waves, the nonlinearity in the governing equations plays an important role in the interplay of damping and steepening tendencies of a modified gasdynamic wave. An explicit criterion for the growth and decay of a modified gasdynamic wave along bicharacteristics curve in the characteristic manifold of the governing differential equations is given and the special reference is made of diverging and converging waves. It is shown that there is a special case of a compressive converging wave for which the stabilizing influences of thermal radiation and the wave front curvature are not strong enough to overcome the tendency of the wave to grow into a shock.     

Stabilization and steering of a parabolic laser thermal thruster with an ignition device

High energy pulses of a CO₂ laser are focused in a parabolic mirror yielding to a laser-supported detonation. The generated thrust acting on the reflector as a bell nozzle is studied in multiple pulse free flight experiments with respect to axial, lateral and angular momentum coupling. The employment of an ignition pin on the reflector's axis of symmetry lowering the ignition threshold by several orders of magnitude is found to provide for a reproducible detonation process. The axial momentum coupling of each pulse is analyzed with respect to initial lateral offset and tilt during the flight. High speed analyses of recorded flights indicate that lateral momentum components occur re-centering the thruster on the beam. Thrust vector steering can be realized by tilt of the ignition pin inside the thruster, thus shifting the detonation. A design model of a laser-driven rocket including a remotely accessible steering gear was developed and tested successfully.     

On the breakdown of wave fronts of characteristics in an ideal dissociating gas

Using the method of characteristics, the problem of breaking or non-breaking of waves is studied in a plane cylindrically or spherically symmetric flow of an ideal dissociating gas. It is investigated as to how the effects of dissociation and that of the wave front curvature influence the breaking or non-breaking of waves. In a symmetrical converging gas motion a remarkable difference between the behaviours of cylindrical and spherical waves is discovered.     

双脉冲发动机点火过程三维数值模拟

以喷射棒式双脉冲发动机燃烧室、级间隔离装置和喷管一体化为研究对象,采用数值仿真技术对Ⅱ脉冲点火过程三维流场特性进行分析研究。计算结果表明,点火初期燃气压力波峰超前于火焰峰到达级间隔离装置,并以压强冲击波形式传播,Ⅱ脉冲燃烧室相对高压区位置不断发生改变;级间孔打开过程对药柱末端压强影响较大,但对Ⅱ脉冲燃烧室压强整体上升过程影响较小;级间孔打开后,燃气经级间孔加速后形成高度欠膨胀射流,并在Ⅰ脉冲燃烧室内形成非对称带状低压区;级间孔分布的非对称性,导致压强及温度在发动机燃烧室中呈现显著的三维分布特性;高温区出现在隔板附近,而在装药前端、装药末端及外围级间孔轴线附近出现低温区。     

弹丸速度对超爆轰冲压加速器性能影响

为研究超爆轰模态冲压加速器的推进性能，采用混合的Roe/HLL（Harten, Lax, Van Leer）格式，结合自适应网格加密技术(AMR )与沉浸边界法(IBM )，数值模拟了弹丸速度高于预混可燃气体C-J爆速的冲压加速器流场，揭示了弹丸速度对流场结构与推力的影响。结果表明当弹丸速度在一定范围时，斜爆轰波可驻定在弹丸肩部或头部，在弹丸尾部形成高压区加速弹丸，并且，斜爆轰波驻定在弹丸头部推力更高，稳定工作的速度范围 更宽 。     

Recent experiments in laser supported absorption waves

Recent experimental studies with laser supported absorption waves, arising from intense laser radiation incident upon various surface materials, are discussed. The propagation characteristics of both subsonic (laser supported combustion), intensity about 10⁵ W/cm², and supersonic (laser supported detonation), intensity greater than 10⁶ W/cm², waves are described, including the dependence of wave speed on laser intensity, beam diameter, gas density and laser wave length. Measurements of the plasma properties in such waves are described, and the analysis of these data allows conclusions identifying the dominant transport mechanism in such waves. It is also concluded that in the LSC (subsonic) case, radial flow ahead of and within the wave are dominant features of the wave structure. The equipment and laser facilities used in the experiments are also discussed.     

Shock waves in water foams

Propagation of shock waves in tubes filled with water foams is studied using pressure gauges. Low amplitude shock waves consist of a precursor which propagates at a velocity slightly less than the acoustic velocity in the gas, and of a main compression wave which propagates slower than the precursor. Stronger shock waves have a single front. Maximum pressure rise in the incident and reflected shock waves cannot be calculated using one-dimensional conservation equations at the shock front. It is suggested that the flow of the liquid in foam cells has to be taken into account in order to predict the behavior of shock waves in foams. The nature of the gas which fills the cells is shown to have a strong effect on the quenching of blast waves in foams.     

Shock compression of liquid hydrogen in various experimental geometries

In connection with the use of cryogenic liquids in high-speed gas dynamics and high-pressure physics, shock-wave processes in liquid hydrogen were investigated under plane, cylindrical and hemispherical loading.The plane loading of liquid hydrogen consisted of a multicyclic, nearly isentropic compression. A transducer employing a contact electrical effect was used to record this multicyclic compression process between a rigid wall and a flyer, resulting in a sequence of shock steps of decreasing amplitude, whose integrated action is equivalent to the isentropic compression of liquid hydrogen up to 500 kbar.The cylindrical loading was generated by detonating a high-explosive charge enclosing a cylindrical cavity along its axis that was filled with liquid hydrogen. Under these conditions shock velocities up to 13.7 km/sec were recorded, and pressure in the shock-compressed hydrogen reached 90 kbar. The formation of a boundary layer and expansion of the cylindrical cavity limited further pressure increases in the column of compressed liquid and lead to a decrease in the flow velocity. The observed increase in detonation velocity is associated with the influence of the channel wave on the detonation regime in the neighboring explosive layers.Under hemispherical loading, an increase in the converging shock velocity from 6 to 20 km/sec was recorded. The final pressure reached 210 kbar, and the total specific energy exceeded 200 kJ/g. During the release of the shock-compressed hydrogen into air at 0.1 torr, shock waves with velocities exceeding 50 km/sec were obtained.     

超声速斜爆震发动机起爆过程研究综述

对超声速斜爆震发动机的起爆方式进行了比较分析,对起爆发展和稳定特性的研究历程和发展现状进行了综述,对相关的研究方法和技术进行了概括,提出了利用先进光学测量技术,结合激光诱导荧光技术对超声速斜爆震发动机起爆过程进行实验研究的设想。     

Effects of a hot jet on detonation initiation and propagation in supersonic combustible mixtures

The effects of a hot jet on detonation initiation and propagation in supersonic combustible mixtures has been studied with two-dimensional numerical simulations with the open-source program AMROC that uses a block-structured adaptive mesh refinement method. Results indicate that the hot jet could ignite the detonation effectively in supersonic combustible mixtures like a pneumatic ramp. After the realization of the detonation initiation, the hot jet can still play an important role on the detonation propagation during its continuous ejection. For a hot jet with certain diameter, it can result in an overdriven detonation with almost constant overdrive degree. After the shutdown of the hot jet, the stable CJ detonation combustion was realized finally in the supersonic combustible mixtures. With the re-ejection of the hot jet, the failed detonation could be reinitiated quickly. Through the control of the re-ejection of the hot jet, it plays a key role not only in the initiation process, but also in the subsequent continuous detonation combustion period.